Gladiator Gold Silver Coin Roman Russell Crowe Autograph Old Movie Star Ancient • £5.99 (2025)

Gladiator Gold Silver Coin Roman Russell Crowe Autograph Old Movie Star Ancient 1 of 3Only 1 left — 6 watchers Gladiator Gold Silver Coin Roman Russell Crowe Autograph Old Movie Star Ancient 2 2 of 3 Gladiator Gold Silver Coin Roman Russell Crowe Autograph Old Movie Star Ancient 3 3 of 3

See More

Seller: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (35,525) 99.8%, Location: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 316526200253 Gladiator Gold Silver Coin Roman Russell Crowe Autograph Old Movie Star Ancient. Written by David Scarpa based on a story he wrote with Peter Craig, the film was produced by Scott Free Productions and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Filming took place between June 2023 and January 2024, with a five-month delay due to the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes. Gladiator Russel Crowe Signed Coin This is a Gold Plated & Silver-Plated Gladiator Coin One Side has an image of Rusell Crow as "The Gladiator" from the film. It also has his signature The back has an image of the Colosseum in Rome where the Gladiators used to fight with its name The coin is 40mm in diameter and weights about an ounce Comes in air-tight acrylic coin holder In Excellent Condition Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectable Keepsake souvineer for anyone who loves the film "Gladiator" Immerse yourself in the golden age of Rome with this stunning Gladiator Gold Silver Coin, a testament to the grandeur of the Roman Imperial era. Honouring the brave warriors of the past, this coin features a meticulous depiction of the iconic gladiator, reminiscent of Russell Crowe's portrayal in the epic film. it captures the spirit of the Roman legions and the cinematic legacy of a timeless saga. Crafted with precision, the coin’s charm lies in its raw narrative, untouched by the hands of time. A piece that speaks to collectors and history enthusiasts alike, offering a tangible link to the Roman period. Celebrate the spirit of the arena, a tribute to the iconic Ancient Roman Colosseum and the bravado of gladiatorial combat. Features a stunning silver finish that captures the eye, showcasing a design that pays homage to one of history's most famous battlegrounds. This singular piece is a must-have for collectors and history enthusiasts alike, offering a tangible connexion to the grandeur of Rome's engineering and the drama of the gladiator's fate. Ungraded and uncertified, it stands as a raw emblem of a bygone era, perfect for displaying or expanding your coin collection. A wonderful item for anyone who loves The Film Gladiator It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop or an addition to a fancy dress costume Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life I have a lot of Historical Memorabilia on Ebay so Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback from over 35,000 Satisfied from the past 15 years Check out my other items ! All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted. Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment. Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Estonia * Ethiopia * Falkland Islands (GB) * Faroe Islands (DK) * Fiji Islands * Finland * France * French Guiana (FR) * French Polynesia (FR) * French Southern Lands (FR) * Gabon * Gambia * Georgia * Germany * Ghana * Gibraltar (GB) * Greece * Greenland (DK) * Grenada * Guadeloupe (FR) * Guam (US) * Guatemala * Guernsey (GB) * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Heard and McDonald Islands (AU) * Honduras * Hong Kong (CN) * Hungary * Iceland * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Ireland * Isle of Man (GB) * Israel * Italy * Ivory Coast * Jamaica * Jan Mayen (NO) * Japan * Jersey (GB) * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Latvia * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Liechtenstein * Lithuania * Luxembourg * Macau (CN) * Macedonia * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Malta * Marshall Islands * Martinique (FR) * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mayotte (FR) * Mexico * Micronesia * Moldova * Monaco * Mongolia * Montenegro * Montserrat (GB) * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Navassa (US) * Nepal * Netherlands * New Caledonia (FR) * New Zealand * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * Niue (NZ) * Norfolk Island (AU) * North Korea * Northern Cyprus * Northern Mariana Islands (US) * Norway * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestinian Authority * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Philippines * Pitcairn Island (GB) * Poland * Portugal * Puerto Rico (US) * Qatar * Reunion (FR) * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saba (NL) * Saint Barthelemy (FR) * Saint Helena (GB) * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Martin (FR) * Saint Pierre and Miquelon (FR) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * San Marino * Sao Tome and Principe * Saudi Arabia * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Singapore * Sint Eustatius (NL) * Sint Maarten (NL) * Slovakia * Slovenia * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Georgia (GB) * South Korea * South Sudan * Spain * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Svalbard (NO) * Swaziland * Sweden * Switzerland * Syria * Taiwan * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Togo * Tokelau (NZ) * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Turks and Caicos Islands (GB) * Tuvalu * U.S. Minor Pacific Islands (US) * U.S. Virgin Islands (US) * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * United Kingdom * United States * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vatican City * Venezuela * Vietnam * Wallis and Futuna (FR) * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe and major cities such as Tokyo, Yokohama, New York City, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Mexico City, Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Manila, Mumbai, Delhi, Jakarta, Lagos, Kolkata, Cairo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Moscow, Shanghai, Karachi, Paris, Istanbul, Nagoya, Beijing, Chicago, London, Shenzhen, Essen, Düsseldorf, Tehran, Bogota, Lima, Bangkok, Johannesburg, East Rand, Chennai, Taipei, Baghdad, Santiago, Bangalore, Hyderabad, St Petersburg, Philadelphia, Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Gladiator II Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Gladiator II Theatrical release poster Directed by Ridley Scott Screenplay by David Scarpa Story by Peter Craig David Scarpa Based on Characters by David Franzoni Produced by Ridley Scott Michael Pruss Douglas Wick Lucy Fisher David Franzoni Starring Paul Mescal Pedro Pascal Joseph Quinn Fred Hechinger Lior Raz Derek Jacobi Denzel Washington Connie Nielsen Cinematography John Mathieson Edited by Claire Simpson Sam Restivo Music by Harry Gregson-Williams Production companies Scott Free Productions Lucy Fisher/Douglas Wick Productions Distributed by Paramount Pictures Release dates October 30, 2024 (Sydney) November 15, 2024 (United Kingdom) November 22, 2024 (United States) Running time 148 minutes[1] Countries United Kingdom United States Language English Budget $310 million[2] $210 million (net cost)[3][4] Box office $435.2 million[5][6] Gladiator II is a 2024 historical epic film directed and produced by Ridley Scott that serves as a sequel to Gladiator (2000). Written by David Scarpa based on a story he wrote with Peter Craig, the film was produced by Scott Free Productions and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It stars Paul Mescal, Pedro Pascal, Joseph Quinn, Fred Hechinger, Lior Raz, Derek Jacobi, Connie Nielsen, and Denzel Washington.[7] Jacobi and Nielsen reprise their roles from the first film, with Mescal replacing Spencer Treat Clark. Mescal portrays Lucius Verus Aurelius, the exiled Prince of Rome, who becomes a prisoner of war and fights as a gladiator for Macrinus, a former slave who plots to overthrow the twin emperors Geta and Caracalla. A sequel to Gladiator was discussed as early as June 2001, with David Franzoni and John Logan set to return as screenwriters. Development was halted when DreamWorks Pictures was sold to Paramount in 2006. The film was finally announced in 2018, and Mescal was cast in the lead role in January 2023, with a script by Scarpa. Filming took place between June 2023 and January 2024, with a five-month delay due to the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes. Gladiator II premiered in Sydney, Australia, on October 30, 2024. It was released in the United Kingdom on November 15 and in the United States on November 22. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its performances, Scott's direction, set design, and action, while criticism was directed at the emotional tone, similarity to its predecessor, and historical inaccuracies. It has grossed $435.2 million worldwide.[8] It was named one of the top ten films of 2024 by the National Board of Review and received two nominations at the 82nd Golden Globe Awards: Cinematic and Box Office Achievement and Best Supporting Actor for Washington. Plot Sixteen years after Marcus Aurelius's death,[a] Rome is ruled by the corrupt twin emperors Geta and Caracalla. In the North African kingdom of Numidia, the refugee Hanno lives with his wife Arishat. The Roman army led by General Acacius invades and conquers the kingdom, killing Arishat and enslaving Hanno and the other survivors. The slaves are taken to Ostia, where the Romans pit them against baboons to advertise them as potential gladiators. Hanno savagely kills two baboons, impressing the stable master Macrinus, who promises Hanno an opportunity to kill Acacius if he wins enough fights in Rome. Acacius returns to Rome as a war hero; Geta and Caracalla arrange gladiatorial games in the Colosseum to celebrate his victory. Disillusioned with war, Acacius requests a break with his wife Lucilla, the daughter of Aurelius, but the emperors refuse and plot to conquer Persia and India. Senator Thraex throws a party for the emperors and arranges a gladiatorial duel as entertainment. After Hanno wins, he recites a verse from Virgil's Aeneid, revealing his Roman education to the emperors and raising Macrinus's suspicion. Acacius and Lucilla conspire with Thraex and Senator Gracchus to overthrow the emperors and restore the Roman Republic. Hanno emulates the late legendary gladiator Maximus in the Colosseum to win fights. Lucilla realizes that Hanno is her son, Lucius Verus, whom she sent away as a child to protect him from rivals for the throne. Lucilla visits Lucius and tries to reconnect with him, but he angrily rebuffs her. He resents being forced to flee Rome and is upset that her new husband caused Arishat's death. Lucilla reveals to Lucius that he is Maximus's son and tells him to use his father's strength to survive. During a naumachia in the Colosseum, Lucius leads the gladiators to victory and fires a crossbow at the spectating Acacius but fails to kill him. Ravi, the gladiators' physician, befriends Lucius and shows him the shrine to Maximus, which includes Maximus's sword and armor. Lucilla and Acacius conspire to free Lucius as part of their plot to dethrone the emperors. However, Thraex, who owes Macrinus money, informs him of the conspiracy; Lucilla and Acacius are arrested for treason. Macrinus advises the emperors to have Acacius killed in the Colosseum and arranges for Lucius to fight him. After a brief fight, Acacius surrenders to Lucius and professes his love and respect for Lucilla and Maximus. Lucius refuses to execute Acacius but the Praetorian Guard execute him at the emperors' command, prompting the people to riot. When Macrinus questions Lucius's refusal to kill Acacius, Lucius argues that Rome can be a better place. Macrinus manipulates Caracalla into believing that Geta will blame him for the riot; Caracalla kills Geta with Macrinus's help. Lucilla and Lucius reconcile; she gives him her father's ring, which also belonged to Maximus and Acacius. Increasingly delusional, Caracalla names his pet monkey as a consul alongside Macrinus. Macrinus persuades the Senate that he can restore order and assumes control of the Praetorians. He reveals to Lucilla that he was a slave under Aurelius's rule and vows to avenge himself by becoming emperor. Macrinus convinces Caracalla to have Lucilla executed in the Colosseum, with only Lucius to defend her, hoping their deaths will trigger another riot that the Senate will defuse by executing Caracalla. Lucius sends Ravi with the ring to request military aid from Acacius's legions outside Rome. Lucilla is brought into the Colosseum with the senators whom she conspired with, while Lucius rallies the gladiators to revolt against their enslavers. Armed with Maximus's sword and armor, he leads the gladiators to defend Lucilla from execution. Gracchus is killed in the onslaught, while Macrinus kills Caracalla before fatally shooting Lucilla with an arrow. Macrinus flees the rioting city with Lucius in pursuit. Acacius's legions and Macrinus's Praetorians meet outside Rome. To stop a battle, Lucius and Macrinus duel. Although Macrinus nearly kills Lucius, Lucius kills Macrinus and reveals his identity as the imperial heir, convincing both armies to build a united Rome with him. Later, Lucius mourns his parents in the Colosseum. Cast Paul Mescal as Lucius Verus Aurelius / "Hanno": The grandson of the former emperor Marcus Aurelius and son of Maximus Decimus Meridius, the protagonist of the first film.[9] Following his father's death, Lucius was sent away from Rome as a child by his mother, Lucilla, to protect him from assassins. They have not met in around 15 years.[10] Lucius lives with his wife in Numidia but is taken prisoner by the Roman army after they invade his home and kill his wife. He is sold into slavery to become a gladiator in the Colosseum. He seeks revenge against the Romans and their general, Acacius. Alfie Tempest portrays a young Lucius, with Spencer Treat Clark's likeness from the original film superimposed over his own. Pedro Pascal as General Acacius: A general of the Roman army who trained under Maximus, and Lucilla's husband. Although he lives a luxurious lifestyle in Rome, he spends most of his time away on military campaigns for the emperors. He leads an army to take over Numidia and invades Lucius's home, but is disillusioned by war and does not want to send more men to die for the emperors.[11] Acacius conspires with Lucilla to overthrow the emperors but is arrested and reduced to fighting as a gladiator in the Colosseum. According to Pascal, he is "a very, very good general, which can mean a very good killer", serving as a symbol to Lucius of everything he hates.[12] Connie Nielsen as Lucilla: Lucius's mother, Maximus's former lover, and Aurelius's daughter. She sent Lucius away from Rome after Maximus's death to protect him from rivals for the imperial throne. Following Maximus's death, she marries Acacius. She watches Lucius fight in the Colosseum but initially does not recognize him as her son.[12] Due to her popularity among the people of Rome, she is feared and exploited by those in power, such as the emperors.[13] Nielsen reprises her role from the original film.[12] Denzel Washington as Macrinus (loosely inspired by the historical figure Marcus Opellius Macrinus[14][15]): A former slave who plans to control Rome.[11] He keeps a stable of gladiators and mentors Lucius. He also works as an arms dealer, providing weapons, food, and oil to the Roman armies in Europe. Director Ridley Scott described him as "pretty fucking cruel" to the arena fighters,[12] with Washington adding that he "wants to be Emperor and he's willing to do anything to get there".[16] Scott also noted that Macrinus has a "twinkle" of bisexuality, describing him as a gangster who started as a prisoner of war, became a gladiator, and earned his freedom.[17] Joseph Quinn as Emperor Geta: The co-emperor of Rome alongside his biological older brother, Caracalla. Just like his older brother, Geta was a sadistic, egotistical ruler who ruled Rome and all of the Colosseum's entertainment. Despite Scott described the pair as "damaged goods from birth" who are "almost a replay of Romulus and Remus",[12] Geta was somewhat saner and more logical of two, and also more mature and calmer than his older brother. Other inspirations being Beavis and Butt-Head from the MTV adult cartoon of the same name.[18]Careful not to copy Joaquin Phoenix's performance as Commodus from the original film, Quinn took inspiration from Philip Seymour Hoffman's Owen Davian from Mission: Impossible III (2006) and Gary Oldman's Jean-Baptiste Emanuel Zorg from The Fifth Element (1997) for playing his character.[19] One inspiration for Geta's look was John Lydon.[18] Fred Hechinger as Emperor Caracalla: The co-emperor of Rome alongside his biological younger brother, Geta. He has a pet monkey and is less stable than his younger brother due to cognitive erosion in his brain.[20] Hechinger discussed with Scott about finding inspirations to build Caracalla's look from Sid Vicious,[21] with Caracalla's pet monkey serving as another inspiration for the character's "crazed behavior".[20] Lior Raz as Viggo: The trainer of gladiators for Macrinus. A former gladiator, Viggo is a "tough guy" who escorts the gladiators to their fights.[22] Derek Jacobi as Senator Gracchus: A member of the Roman Senate who opposes the growing corruption of the Imperial Court. Jacobi reprises his role from the original film.[13] Peter Mensah as Jugurtha: A black Numidian chieftain who mentored Lucius after the latter was exiled from Rome, with whom he is later enslaved and forced to become a gladiator.[23] Matt Lucas as the Master of Ceremonies: The Colosseum's public address announcer. Alexander Karim as Ravi: A former gladiator from India who earned his freedom and then chose to serve as a doctor to wounded combatants.[23] Tim McInnerny as Senator Thraex: A gambling-addicted, corrupt member of the Roman Senate who owes Macrinus a tremendous amount of money. Richard McCabe as Quaestor. Rory McCann as Tegula: The leader of the Praetorian Guard. Yuval Gonen as Arishat: Lucius's wife, a skilled archer who is killed during the Roman invasion of their home.[23] Alec Utgoff as Darius: Acacius's second-in-command, whom Acacius recruits to mount a coup against the corrupt emperors. Yann Gael as Bostar. Although Macrinus states his bisexuality in the film, a scene involving Macrinus kissing another man was deleted from the film.[24] However, this was later disputed by Scott.[25] Production Development In June 2001, developments for a Gladiator (2000) follow-up began for either a prequel or sequel, with David Franzoni in early negotiations to once again serve as screenwriter.[26] Ridley Scott's logic to make a sequel was that, even though Maximus Decimus Meridius died at the end of the original film, what happened to Lucius Verus was left ambiguous, considering the questions about his whereabouts perfect for a second film.[17] The following year, a sequel was announced to be moving forward with John Logan serving as screenwriter. The plot, set 15 years later, included the Praetorian Guards ruling Rome, and an older Lucius—the son of Lucilla in Gladiator—searching for the truth about his biological father. Franzoni signed on as producer, alongside Douglas Wick and Walter Parkes.[27] In December 2002, the film's plot was announced to include prequel events regarding the parentage of Lucius, as well as sequel events depicting the resurrection of Maximus, the main character of the original film. The producers and Russell Crowe, who portrayed Maximus, collaboratively and extensively researched ancient Roman beliefs regarding the afterlife.[28] Although Crowe and Scott had discussed how to bring the former back by having his character resurrect, Scott concluded that Crowe would have to return either as Maximus' double or play another character.[17] By September 2003, Scott announced that the script was completed, while confirming that the story would primarily center on Lucius.[29] Ridley Scott returned to direct Gladiator II two decades after the original. In May 2006, Scott stated that DreamWorks Pictures had wanted to make the sequel, but there were differing ideas for the story. Crowe had favoured a fantasy element in bringing Maximus back to life, while the studio were basing the film on Lucius as the son of Maximus and Lucilla. Scott also discussed the necessity of a more complex script with the corruption of Rome in the potential sequel.[30] During this time, Nick Cave was commissioned to write a new draft of the script. It was later revealed to be written under the working title of "Christ Killer". Cave described the plot as a "deities vs. deity vs. humanity" story. The story involved Maximus in purgatory, who is resurrected as an immortal warrior for the Roman gods. Maximus is sent back to Earth and tasked with ending Christianity by killing Jesus and his disciples, as Christianity was draining the power of the ancient Pagan gods. During his mission, Maximus is tricked into murdering his own son. Cursed to live forever, Maximus fights in the Crusades, World War II, and the Vietnam War; with the ending revealing that in the present-day, the character now works at the Pentagon. The script was rejected and scrapped after Steven Spielberg, who had consulted on the original film, told Scott it wasn't going to work, especially as Cave had written something "too grand" due to his theatre work.[31][32][33][17] After experiencing financial difficulties in the 2000s, DreamWorks Pictures—including the rights to Gladiator and the rest of the pre-2006 live-action film library—was sold to Paramount Pictures in 2006 and development on the sequel was halted.[34] Over the years, other attempts on a sequel script were made, but Scott felt that many writers "were afraid to take it on".[20] He also said that he and everyone involved in the original film were busy so no one thought about making a sequel, but as time passed, he noticed how well Gladiator aged to the point of seemingly having "taken a life of its own" that it made him feel that he owed the audience a continuation to that story.[20] Scott became determined to not let go of the project, deciding to do it for both creative and financial reasons if a good idea came up.[17] In March 2017, Scott revealed that the difficulties of reintroducing Maximus had been resolved. The filmmaker expressed enthusiasm for the future of the project, while discussions with Crowe to reprise his role were ongoing.[35] Paramount Pictures CEO Brian Robbins worked with Ridley Scott on Gladiator II.[36] In November 2018, it was announced that Paramount was greenlighting the development of a sequel. Scott was in early negotiations to once again serve as director, with a script written by Peter Craig. Scott would also serve as producer alongside Douglas Wick, Lucy Fisher, Walter Parkes, and Laurie MacDonald, with the project being a joint-venture production between Paramount, Scott Free Productions, Red Wagon Entertainment, and Parkes+MacDonald Image Nation.[37] In June 2019, the producers revealed that the script took place 25 to 30 years after the first film.[38] The plot was reported to center around Lucius.[39] In April 2021, Chris Hemsworth approached Crowe with a proposal to become involved with the project, with the intention to co-produce the film. While working together on the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Thor: Love and Thunder (2022), the two actors shared additional ideas for the film.[40] By September 2021, Scott stated that the script was once again being worked on with his intention being to direct the sequel upon the completion of production on Napoleon (2023).[41] In November, it was revealed that David Scarpa, who worked with Scott on Napoleon, was rewriting the script.[42] Scott stated in a 2023 interview that they had struggled for 10 months to write the script four years previously, until they revisited the idea of Lucius as the "survivor" of the original film.[43] According to Scott, the premise for the sequel began with the emperors Caracalla and Geta. He said, "After Commodus's death, there was a scramble for the chair, and out of that eventually came a man who became the father of the two princes... One of them was just this side of being dysfunctional, a lunatic. The other one tried to control his brother. So that state of constant disagreement and fluctuating personalities was where we began."[44] Originally greenlit with a production budget of $165 million, the cost of the film increased to a reported $310 million by the time filming wrapped, though Paramount insisted the net cost did not exceed $250 million.[2] Additionally, Ridley Scott's desire to have a rhino battle in the original film, which went unrealized due to cost, was included in the sequel.[45][46][47][48] November 14, Deadline Hollywood reported the film's net budget to be $210 million[4] and November 24 stated the budget was $250 million.[3] The production received €46.7 million in film incentive rebates from Malta, setting a record for the largest rebate issued for a film production in the European Union.[49] Pre-production Irish actor Paul Mescal at the screening of The Lost Daughter at the 44th Mill Valley Film Festival on 16th October 2021. Pedro Pascal speaking at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con International in San Diego, California. Denzel Washington in 2018 Connie Nielsen speaking at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con International in San Diego, California. Sir Derek Jacobi - BFI Southbank - Sunday 13th November 2022 Joseph Quinn on the red carpet at the Big Screen Achievement Awards at the 2024 CinemaCon at The Colosseum Theater at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Fred Hechinger at the Sundance Film Festival in 2024 (Clockwise from top left) Gladiator II stars Paul Mescal, Pedro Pascal, Denzel Washington, Connie Nielsen, Fred Hechinger, Joseph Quinn, and Derek Jacobi In January 2023, Paul Mescal was cast in the film as the adult Lucius (originally portrayed by Spencer Treat Clark), while it was also reported that Arthur Max and Janty Yates, the production designer and costume designer of the original film, respectively, would also be returning to work on the sequel.[50] Scott was unaware of Mescal's fame until he watched his performance in the BBC Three/Hulu miniseries Normal People, which he came across in his need for a "bedtime story". Shortly after, the story for Gladiator II was completed, and Scott ultimately cast Mescal in the lead role after a brief Zoom call.[43][12][20] Austin Butler, Richard Madden and Miles Teller had also been considered for the lead role.[51] Mescal was chosen after Daria Cercek and Michael Ireland had seen his performance in the West End revival of A Streetcar Named Desire, claiming that the "ladies in the audience [had been] very vocal" when he had taken his shirt off.[52] Having seen the original film when he was 13 with his father, Mescal was invited for breakfast by Lucy Fisher and Douglas Wick, who informed him about the sequel's casting, proceeding to tell Scott about his physical capabilities due to playing Gaelic football in his youth while Scott found a striking resemblance to Richard Harris, who played Marcus Aurelius in the original film, so he opted to cast Mescal despite his newcomer status under the pretext he launched careers likewise for Sigourney Weaver and Brad Pitt when he cast them in his films Alien (1979) and Thelma & Louise (1991) respectively. To prepare for the role, Mescal didn't get in touch with Crowe to avoid audiences potentially thinking the film will define his career, trained physically, ate sweet potato and ground beef to put on 18 pounds of muscle and remembered Roman history he studied at school,[53] in addition to practice fighting choreography, horse training and sword fighting.[20] In March 2023, Barry Keoghan entered negotiations to join the cast in the role of Emperor Caracalla while Denzel Washington joined the cast.[54][55] Regarding Scott and his brother Tony as "great filmmakers" who never miss, Washington accepted the role out of interest to work with the inspirational Scott brothers again after their previous collaboration in American Gangster (2007).[16] Additionally, John Mathieson was set to return as cinematographer for the film.[56] Scott didn't conceive Macrinus with Washington in mind, but felt inspired to cast him after seeing Jean-Léon Gérôme's painting Moorish Bath, which depicted a black bearded man with a jeweled Dizzy Gillespie-like hat in orange and blue silk, inspiring the character's appearance, plus Washington's status as a method actor.[17] In April 2023, it was announced that Connie Nielsen and Djimon Hounsou would reprise their roles as Lucilla and Juba respectively, while Joseph Quinn was added to the cast as Emperor Geta.[57][58] In May 2023, Pedro Pascal, May Calamawy, Lior Raz, Derek Jacobi, Peter Mensah and Matt Lucas joined the cast of the film, with Fred Hechinger entering negotiations to play Caracalla after Keoghan had to drop out over scheduling conflicts with Saltburn (2023). Jacobi reprises his role as Senator Gracchus from the first film.[59][60][17] Similarly to Mescal, Pascal underwent intense gladiator training for his role, which he found challenging, but deemed the experience "the most exciting" of his career due to growing up with Scott's films.[20] In December, Hounsou announced that, despite initially being involved, he would not be returning for the sequel due to scheduling conflicts.[61] Filming Production was expected to begin in May 2023, with Ouarzazate, Morocco set as a filming location.[62] Set construction began in the city in April.[63] Filming began in June 2023 with additional filming locations planned for Malta, which stood-in for ancient Rome, and the United Kingdom over the following four months,[64][65] with few early sequences being shot at Morocco before flying to Malta to shoot the rest of the film. Mescal felt some nerves over shooting in the assembled Colosseum and shooting scenes with Washington.[53] Scott purposely took Mescal to the Colosseum set so he could familiarize himself with it, as Mescal hadn't done any big studio movies before.[17] An accident involving fire during filming on June 7 injured six crew members.[66] Filming was suspended in July due to the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes.[67] For a fight sequence, a rhinoceros was created via 3D printing controlled by radio remote, but filming the scene took two or three days and affected Mescal's physicality due to the temperature.[20] Filming resumed on December 4 in Malta,[68] and wrapped on January 17, 2024.[69] Filming also took place on the South Downs at Devil's Dyke, Sussex in June 2024.[70] Music Main article: Gladiator II (soundtrack) In January 2024, it was reported that Harry Gregson-Williams was composing the score for the film, taking over from Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard who scored the first film.[71] Zimmer decided not to return because he did not want to repeat his work from the first film. In an interview with Curzon, he said that the film was "in really good hands" with Gregson-Williams, who had started his career as Zimmer's assistant.[72] Gregson-Williams wrote 100 minutes of original score for the film, and used some of Zimmer and Gerrard's musical cues from the first film.[73] Release Theatrical Gladiator II was released internationally, including the United Kingdom, on November 15, 2024, and later in the United States and Canada on November 22, by Paramount Pictures. Universal Pictures declined to co-finance the sequel or distribute it overseas as it had the first film, leaving only Paramount as the worldwide distributor.[74][75] In Australia, Italy and New Zealand, Gladiator II was released earlier on November 14,[76] following the film's world premiere in Sydney on October 30.[77] It was previously scheduled for a global release on November 22.[78] On July 1, 2024, it was announced that the film's release date would be shared with the first of the two-part film adaptation of the musical Wicked (from original film's co-distributor, Universal), whose date was moved from November 27 to avoid competition with Moana 2. This sparked speculation on whether pitting the two films together could lead to a scenario similar to the Barbenheimer phenomenon, which was a result of Barbie and Oppenheimer both being released on July 21, 2023.[79] On July 10, 2024, Mescal called the double release "Glicked" and voiced his support for the two films to be shown as a double feature, saying "It would be amazing 'cause I think the films couldn't be more polar opposites and it worked in that context previously. So, fingers crossed people come out and see both films on opening weekend".[80] Home media Gladiator II was released on digital download on December 24, 2024.[81] Rating Much like the original film, Gladiator II was given a R rating by the Motion Picture Association due to "strong bloody violence".[82] Unlike other past films of his, Scott has stated that Gladiator II will not receive a director's cut, as he has earned the right to have his final cut and removed some scenes during filming so he did not need to do so after finishing the film.[83] In Australia, two cuts of the film were released; the original, uncut MA15+ version (with the consumer advice "strong themes and violence"),[84] and the edited M-rated version ("animal cruelty, blood and gore, injury detail and violence") where blood spray is either trimmed down or removed.[85] The MA15+ rating was reinstated for the uncut home media release, with a revised consumer advice of "strong animal cruelty, violence and blood and gore".[86] Marketing Footage of the film screened at the CinemaCon 2024 in Las Vegas included scenes of Joseph Quinn as Geta dressed in a white toga and laurel-leaf crown dramatically plunging his thumb downward to note the fate of defeated gladiators, with Nielsen in the background.[65] In June of that year, Scott showcased an extended clip of the film featuring Denzel Washington, Paul Mescal, Pedro Pascal, Connie Nielsen, and Quinn.[87] A poster for the film was released on July 8, 2024, with a trailer released the following day.[88] The trailer would also reportedly be attached to the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Deadpool & Wolverine (2024), which was released on July 26, 2024.[89] Jennifer Ouellette of Ars Technica said the trailer indicated the film "promises to be just as much of a visual feast, as a new crop of power players (plus a couple of familiar faces) clash over the future of Rome".[90] Rather than using an orchestral score, the first trailer used "No Church in the Wild" by Jay-Z and Kanye West, which caused a backlash among film fans who said it was too modern of a song choice. Some justified this choice of music by citing the trailer for the first Gladiator which had used "Bawitdaba" by Kid Rock.[91] Screen Rant criticized how the second trailer spoiled the plot twist of Maximus being Lucius's father; while a common fan theory since the first film's release, Adam Bentz found it questionable to reveal in a trailer, as it could have been emotionally impactful for audiences like it was for Mescal when he found out his character's relationship with the original's protagonist.[92] On the first day of the 2024 NFL season, Paramount Pictures and Pepsi announced a campaign cross-promoting the film with the soft drink's sponsorship of the National Football League. A series of advertisements featured football stars Josh Allen, Derrick Henry, Justin Jefferson, and Travis Kelce as "Gridiron Gladiators", with Megan Thee Stallion appearing as Empress Megan.[93] On October 4, 2024, Japanese professional wrestling promotion New Japan Pro-Wrestling announced that the movie would sponsor that year's King of Pro-Wrestling event on October 14, which is slated to be the first since 2019.[94] On 1 November 2024, at Lucca Comics & Games 2024, to promote the film in Italian cinemas, Francesco Totti played a Roman centurion.[95][96] On November 11, 2024, Scuderia Ferrari drivers Charles Leclerc and Carlos Sainz Jr. attended the film's premiere in London as part of a collaboration with Paramount to promote the film, with the film's actors Paul Mescal, Connie Nielsen, and Fred Hechinger joining the team at the 2024 Las Vegas Grand Prix. The film's logo appeared on Ferrari's car for the Grand Prix itself.[97] Reception Box office As of December 30, 2024, Gladiator II has grossed $163.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $272.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $435.2 million.[6][5] In the United States and Canada, Gladiator II was projected to gross $60 million from 3,500 theaters in its opening weekend. It was released alongside Wicked, which was compared to 2023's Barbenheimer due to the films' contrasting target audiences.[98][99] The film made $22 million on its first day, including $6.5 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $55.5 million, finishing second behind Wicked. It marked the biggest opening weekend of Denzel Washington's career, surpassing American Gangster ($43.5 million in 2007), and also topped 8 Mile ($51.2 million in 2002) for the best opening for a November R-rated film.[3] In its second weekend the film made $30.7 million (and a total of $44 million over the five day Thanksgiving frame), dropping 44% and finishing third behind Moana 2 and Wicked.[100] In its third weekend the film made $12.5 million, remaining in third place.[101][102] The film was released in 63 territories one week ahead of its U.S. release and earned $87 million, the biggest opening weekend of Ridley Scott's career.[103] The second weekend had Gladiator II earning $106 million worldwide to finish second behind Wicked, with its $50.5 million overseas being slightly higher than the $50.2 million of its competitor.[104] Critical response Denzel Washington's performance as Macrinus received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 71% of 372 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The website's consensus reads: "Echoing its predecessor while upping the bloodsport and camp, Gladiator II is an action extravaganza that derives much of its strength and honor from Denzel Washington's scene-stealing performance."[105] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 64 out of 100, based on 62 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.[106] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale (down from the first film's A), while those surveyed by PostTrak gave it a 77% overall positive score, with 64% saying they would "definitely recommend" it.[3] Rotten Tomatoes reported that critics praised the action, performances, story, and visuals, but some argued that "plot-wise it's actually too similar to its predecessor".[107] Similarly, Metacritic stated that "most critics also feel that the film lives in the shadow of the more emotional and ultimately superior original."[108] Early reactions from the film's first screening at Paramount Studios in Los Angeles on October 18, 2024, were positive. Critics praised Scott's direction, the set pieces, battle sequences and Mescal's and Washington's performances, mentioning that Scott and Washington could be nominated for the Academy Awards, but a few felt the film lacked an "emotional punch" when compared to the original film.[109][110][111] Film critic Scott Menzel deemed the film Scott's best since The Martian (2015), a "big, bloody and bad ass action spectacle" that builds upon the original film's legacy.[109] Filmmaker Christopher Nolan named it one of his favorite films of 2024.[112] Historical accuracy The film's historical accuracy was also criticized. Some inaccuracies include the siege of a Numidian city by Roman triremes and the presence of sharks in a naumachia.[113] Numidia had already been part of the Roman Empire for about 250 years during the reign of Caracalla.[114] University of Chicago historian Shadi Bartsch described the film as "total Hollywood bullshit".[115] At the same time, baboons and a rhinoceros showcased on the Colosseum's arena are historically attested,[113] although there is no record of gladiators riding a rhinoceros.[116] Scholar Ray Laurence noted that "the ancient admiration of those who defy death as gladiators is nicely set out by the film" and that "the culture of gladiators is well presented with a doctor of gladiators".[113] Prior to the reenacted naval battle within the Colosseum, the announcer claims that the gladiators would be reenacting the Battle of Salamis between the Trojans and the Persians. In reality, the Battle of Salamis was fought in 480 BCE between the Greek city-states and the Persians, with no Trojan involvement.[117][original research?] The real-life Macrinus was a praetorian prefect of Berber descent from North Africa who became Roman emperor in 217 AD after conspiring against Caracalla and having him murdered.[118][119] He was not a slave to Marcus Aurelius and never trained gladiators.[120] In an interview with The Times Washington argued that there were definitely Black people in Rome at the time.[121] The emperors Geta and Caracalla were not twins. (Caracalla was about one year older than Geta.) Lucius Verus was Roman emperor from 161 AD until his death in 169 AD, alongside his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius.[122] The character of Lucilla is also based on a real historical figure. The real-life Lucilla was the daughter of Marcus Aurelius and the wife of Lucius Verus. One of their sons was named Lucius Verus.[116] Caracalla, after becoming sole emperor, names his pet monkey as consul. There is no historical evidence of this happening. This was possibly inspired by the earlier Roman emperor Caligula, who according to Suetonius, intended to name his horse Incitatus as consul.[123] An idea that is presented in both Gladiator films is the marking with fire of gladiators. This myth comes from an incorrect interpretation of Sacramentum of gladiators, which when translated into English means “I swear to let myself be burned” (bonded, punished, and killed with fire). The way this should be interpreted is more of a reference to combat than an actual mark that would identify you as a gladiator. However, this practice of marking did happen but only to slaves attempting to escape from their masters. Slaves running away from their masters were considered robbers because Romans believed when a slave tried running away from his master, he was “stealing himself” from his owner, so they would mark him so people would know he is a slave if he tried to run away again.[124] There is no historical record of a Roman general named Marcus Acacius.[116] The Roman co-emperors Geta and Caracalla were of mixed Italic, Arab, and Punic North African descent, but the actors who played them are not.[125] Accolades Award/Festival Date of ceremony Category Recipient(s) Result Ref. Hollywood Music in Media Awards November 20, 2024 Original Score – Feature Film Harry Gregson-Williams Nominated [126] Camerimage November 23, 2024 Golden Frog John Mathieson Nominated [127] National Board of Review Awards December 4, 2024 Top Ten Films Gladiator II Won [128][129] Golden Globe Awards January 5, 2025 Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Denzel Washington Pending [130] Cinematic and Box Office Achievement Gladiator II Pending AARP Movies for Grownups Awards January 11, 2025 Best Picture Gladiator II Pending [131] Best Director Ridley Scott Pending Best Supporting Actor Denzel Washington Pending Best Supporting Actress Connie Nielsen Pending Critics' Choice Movie Awards January 12, 2025 Best Supporting Actor Denzel Washington Pending [132] Best Costume Design Janty Yates and Dave Crossman Pending Best Production Design Arthur Max, Jille Azis, and Elli Griff Pending Best Visual Effects Mark Bakowski, Pietro Ponti, Nikki Penny, and Neil Corbould Pending Potential sequel In September 2024, Scott revealed that he was developing a script for a third film, and that the realization depends on the reception for the second installment. Titled Gladiator III, the plot was stated to follow the continuing adventures of Lucius Verus. Likening the ending of Gladiator II to The Godfather Part II (1974), the filmmaker stated that the next movie would explore the character's realization that he is now tasked with a continuing reputation that he does not want.[133][134] Scott later stated that the movie is in early stages of development and intended to be the next project he works on,[135] though the following month he stated to The New York Times his next projects after Gladiator II will be a Bee Gees biopic, set to shoot in September 2025, and an adaptation of the science fiction novel The Dog Stars, set to shoot in Italy in April 2025.[17][136] Notes As depicted in Gladiator (2000) References "Gladiator II (15)". BBFC. October 9, 2024. Retrieved November 17, 2024. Braslow, Samuel; Dolak, Kevin; Sancton, Julian (February 23, 2023). "Rambling Roundup: Ridley Scott's Very Expensive Roman Holiday". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 23, 2024. Retrieved February 23, 2023. D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 24, 2024). "'Wicked' & 'Gladiator II' AKA 'Glicked' Fuel $205M Combined Weekend, Best Pre-Thanksgiving Frame In 11 Years — Sunday AM Box Office Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on November 23, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. Mike Fleming Jr (November 14, 2024). "'Gladiator II': Ridley Scott, Paul Mescal, Denzel Washington, Pedro Pascal & Connie Nielsen Reveal How All Roads Led To Ancient Rome". Deadline. Archived from the original on November 14, 2024. Retrieved November 14, 2024. costing about $210 million net budget "Gladiator II (2024)". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved December 31, 2024. "Gladiator II (2024) - Financial Information". The Numbers. Archived from the original on November 15, 2024. Retrieved December 31, 2024. "Prepare to be entertained". Gladiator Movie. Retrieved November 6, 2024. Scott, Ryan (November 15, 2024). "How Much Gladiator II Needs To Make To Become A Box Office Hit". SlashFilm. "Gladiator II trailer reveals that Lucius is the son of Russell Crowe's Maximus after all". Entertainment Weekly. September 23, 2024. Archived from the original on September 23, 2024. Retrieved September 23, 2024. @RottenTomatoes (November 26, 2023). "Ridley Scott gives us an inside scoop on Paul Mescal's role as Lucius in #Gladiator2" (Tweet) – via Twitter. "The First 'Gladiator 2' Trailer Is Epic And Absolutely Stunning". Forbes. July 9, 2024. Archived from the original on July 28, 2024. Retrieved July 28, 2024. Breznican, Anthony (July 1, 2024). "Paul Mescal vs. Pedro Pascal: A First Look at the Epic Gladiator II". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on July 7, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024. Huff, Lauren (September 23, 2024). "Connie Nielsen breaks down her emotional return to the Colosseum in 'insane' Gladiator II". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on September 24, 2024. Retrieved September 25, 2024. "Who is Macrinus in Gladiator 2? His Real Name Revealed | NerdVeda". November 23, 2024. "Is Denzel Washington's 'Gladiator II' Villain Based on a Real Roman Emperor? An Expert Weighs in (Exclusive)". Archived from the original on November 25, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. Travis, Ben (August 23, 2024). "Denzel Washington On Working With Tony And Ridley Scott: 'Both Are Great – They Can't Miss'". Empire. Archived from the original on August 23, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2024. Buchanan, Kyle (November 7, 2024). "With 'Gladiator II,' Ridley Scott Returns to the Arena". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024. Retrieved November 8, 2024. Bentz, Adam (November 1, 2024). "Gladiator 2's Twin Emperors Were Inspired By Beavis & Butt-Head". Screen Rant. Retrieved November 2, 2024. Travis, Benn (August 23, 2024). "Joseph Quinn In Gladiator II Was Inspired By Gary Oldman And Philip Seymour Hoffman's Wildest Roles". Empire. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved September 1, 2024. "Now entering the arena: Paul Mescal and Pedro Pascal unsheathe Gladiator II". Entertainment Weekly. October 22, 2024. Retrieved October 22, 2024. Watson, Fay (July 19, 2024). "Gladiator 2's emperor actor teases the "wild" sequel and how his character is surprisingly inspired by punk star Sid Vicious". GamesRadar+. Archived from the original on July 20, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2024. "Gladiator II - itw Lior Raz (Official video)". YouTube. October 27, 2024. Retrieved November 6, 2024. Rooney, David (November 11, 2024). "'Gladiator II' Review: Paul Mescal and a Scene-Stealing Denzel Washington in Ridley Scott's Entertaining but Imitative Sequel". The Hollywood Reporter. Tinoco, Armando (November 14, 2024). "Denzel Washington Says 'Gladiator II' Cut Gay Kiss: "I Guess They Weren't Ready For That Yet"". "Ridley Scott Says Denzel Washington's 'Gladiator II' Same-Sex Kiss 'Didn't Happen': 'They Acted the Moment'". Variety. November 18, 2024. Retrieved December 15, 2024. Stax (June 16, 2001). "IGN FilmForce Exclusive: David Franzoni in Negotiations for Another Gladiator!". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Linder, Brian (September 24, 2002). "A Hero Will Rise ... Again". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Stax (December 17, 2002). "A Hero Will Rise – From the Dead!". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Stax (September 11, 2003). "Ridley Talks Gladiator 2". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Weinberg, Scott (May 8, 2006). "Ridley Lays "Gladiator 2" to Rest". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on August 20, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Fischer, Russ (July 12, 2013). "WTF: Nick Cave Wanted to Call His Gladiator 2 Script Christ Killer". Slash Film. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Barber, Nicholas (August 9, 2018). "Gladiator 2: The strangest sequel never made?". British Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on December 4, 2020. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Michaels, Sean (May 6, 2009). "Nick Cave's rejected Gladiator 2 script uncovered!". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved January 6, 2023. "Paramount To Buy Dreamworks". www.cbsnews.com. December 11, 2005. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Hibberd, James (March 11, 2017). "Ridley Scott on Gladiator sequel: 'I know how to bring him back'". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on March 14, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2023. "Paramount Boss on Gladiator II, Scary Sequels and Wicked Showdown". Bloomberg. October 18, 2024. Archived from the original on November 18, 2024. Retrieved November 23, 2024. Flemming, Mike Jr. (November 1, 2018). "Ridley Scott Moving Forward With Gladiator 2; Peter Craig To Write Script For Paramount". Deadline. Archived from the original on November 2, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Sprague, Mike (June 11, 2019). "Gladiator 2 Is Still Happening, Top Gun 2 Writer Takes on Script". MovieWeb. Archived from the original on June 12, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Ovenden, Olivia (February 11, 2018). "Gladiator 2: Ridley Scott's Oscar Winner Is Getting A Sequel". Esquire. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2023. New Idea (April 6, 2021). "Chris Hemsworth begs Russell Crowe: Let's make Gladiator 2!". New Idea. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Butcher, Sophie (September 29, 2021). "Ridley Scott Says Gladiator 2 Will Be 'Ready To Go' After Napoleon Movie – Exclusive". Empire. Archived from the original on September 29, 2021. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Fleming, Mike Jr. (November 12, 2021). "Ridley Scott Won't Let Age Or Pandemic Slow A Storytelling Appetite That Brought House of Gucci & The Last Duel; Napoleon & More 'Gladiator' Up Next". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 9, 2023. Graham, Jamie (October 6, 2023). "Ridley Scott couldn't stop thinking about Paul Mescal after watching Normal People, so he cast him in Gladiator 2". Total Film. Archived from the original on October 8, 2023. Retrieved October 8, 2023. "Gladiator 2: Ridley Scott Sees Our Future in the Fallen Roman Empire". Den of Geek. October 17, 2024. Retrieved October 20, 2024. Cripe, Michael (July 9, 2024). "Ridley Scott Has Wanted That Rhino Battle From the Gladiator 2 Trailer for 25 Years". IGN. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Cavanaugh, Patrick (June 11, 2020). "Gladiator Producer Reveals His Biggest Regret About the Film". Comicbook.com. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Davids, Brian (June 18, 2020). "How a Painting Wooed Ridley Scott into Directing 'Gladiator'". Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Bushby, Helen (July 9, 2024). "Gladiator II: Paul Mescal battles a rhino in upcoming film". BBC. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Zammit, Mark Laurence (August 19, 2023). "Gladiator film to be given €47 million in taxpayers' money". Times of Malta. Allied Newspapers Limited. Archived from the original on August 22, 2023. Kroll, Justin (January 6, 2023). "Paul Mescal To Star In Ridley Scott's Gladiator Sequel For Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved March 4, 2023. Kroll, Justin [@krolljvar] (January 6, 2023). "Butler didn't end up meeting as he was looking for a break after shooting MASTERS OF AIR, DUNE 2 and BIKERIDERS back-to-back-to-back. Came down to Paul, Miles and Tim and besides having great meeting with Paul, Ridley was looking for actor who wasn't quite a star yet for role" (Tweet). Archived from the original on March 10, 2023 – via Twitter. Lang, Brian (July 26, 2023). "After a Decade in Limbo, Brian Robbins Is Giving Paramount a Makeover With 'Ninja Turtles,' Tom Cruise and 'Gladiator 2'". Variety. Archived from the original on July 27, 2023. Retrieved July 27, 2023. "Paul Mescal Enters the Arena in Gladiator II". October 15, 2024. Retrieved October 16, 2024. Kroll, Justin (March 16, 2023). "Barry Keoghan In Talks To Join Gladiator Sequel At Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2023. Kroll, Justin (March 17, 2023). "Denzel Washington Reuniting With Ridley Scott On 'Gladiator' Sequel At Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 28, 2023. Retrieved March 17, 2023. Jackson, Angelique (March 17, 2023). "Denzel Washington in Talks to Join Ridley Scott's Gladiator Sequel". Variety. Archived from the original on April 28, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. Kroll, Justin (April 28, 2023). "Paramount's Gladiator Sequel's Cast Grows As Connie Nielsen Closes Deal To Return As Lucilla While Stranger Things Breakout Joseph Quinn Lands Emperor Caracalla Role". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. Galuppo, Mia; Kit, Borys (April 28, 2023). "Stranger Things Star Joseph Quinn Set for Gladiator Sequel". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. Kroll, Justin (May 1, 2023). "Pedro Pascal Joins Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator' Sequel At Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 21, 2023. Retrieved May 1, 2023. Kroll, Justin (May 18, 2023). "Paramount's Gladiator Sequel Rounds Out Cast With Moon Knight Breakout May Calamawy & Others; White Lotus Actor Fred Hechinger In Talks For Emperor Geta Role". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on May 18, 2023. Retrieved May 18, 2023. While many of the leading roles were straight offers, Scott wanted to do a similar search he did for the Mescal part for the role that Calamawy ultimately landed. Given the importance of the character to the story, Scott wanted a thorough search, and following multiple auditions Calamawy landed the part. Italiano, Eric (December 15, 2023). "Djimon Hounsou Says He Is Not Returning For The Gladiator Sequel (Exclusive)". BroBible. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved December 15, 2023. "Gladiator movie sequel to be filmed in Morocco's Ouarzazate". Middle East Monitor. January 8, 2023. Archived from the original on January 8, 2023. Retrieved April 29, 2023. Zouiten, Sara (April 12, 2023). "Construction Begins on Giant Arena for Gladiator 2 in Morocco's Ouarzazate". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on April 13, 2023. Retrieved April 29, 2023. Rajput, Priyanca (June 8, 2023). "Ridley Scott's Gladiator 2 enters production". KFTV.com. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 8, 2023. Romano, Nick (April 17, 2024). "Inside Joseph Quinn's breakthrough year: Gladiator II, Fantastic Four, and more". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on April 23, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (June 9, 2023). "Six Gladiator 2 Crewmembers Injured In Stunt Accident On Set". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 9, 2023. Gonzalez, Umberto (July 14, 2023). "Here Are All The Movies Affected by the SAG-AFTRA Strike From Deadpool 3 to Mission: Impossible 8 (Photos)". TheWrap. Archived from the original on July 14, 2023. Retrieved July 14, 2023. Lang, Brent; Tangcay, Jazz (November 28, 2023). "Gladiator 2 Resuming Production in Malta Next Week (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Archived from the original on November 28, 2023. Retrieved November 28, 2023. Gearan, Hannah (January 17, 2024). "Gladiator 2 Completes Filming, New Star Celebrates With BTS Ridley Scott Image". Screen Rant. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved February 26, 2024. "Gladiator II filming crews and Paul Mescal spotted in Sussex". The Argus. June 11, 2024. Archived from the original on June 12, 2024. Retrieved June 12, 2024. Ritman, Alex (January 5, 2024). "Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator 2' Taps Hans Zimmer Protégé Harry Gregson-Williams as Composer (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Archived from the original on January 5, 2024. Retrieved January 5, 2024. Warmann, Amon (March 6, 2024). "HANS ZIMMER: 'I HAD TO CHANGE STYLE BECAUSE EVERYONE ELSE WAS DOING MINE'". Curzon. Archived from the original on June 15, 2024. Retrieved June 15, 2024. "'Gladiator II' Composer Harry Gregson-Williams Sought Mentor Hans Zimmer's Approval To Tackle Sequel & Borrow Cues From The First Film – Sound & Screen Film". Deadline. November 2, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024. McPherson, Chris (June 19, 2024). "'Gladiator 2' Just Won the Battle for an Earlier Release Date Internationally". Collider. Archived from the original on June 19, 2024. Retrieved June 21, 2024. Tartaglione, Nancy (June 19, 2024). "Paramount Goes Epic At CineEurope With 'Gladiator II' Footage; Highlights 'A Quiet Place: Day One' & 'Transformers One'". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 20, 2024. Retrieved June 29, 2024. Choy, Rachel (July 10, 2024). "Gladiator II: Everything We Know Including Trailer, Plot, Release Date & Cast". Pedestrian.tv. Nine Entertainment Co. Archived from the original on August 12, 2024. Retrieved August 12, 2024. Dixit, Marni (October 31, 2024). "Paul Mescal stunned by detail at Gladiator II Sydney premiere: 'Absolutely mad'". Yahoo! Lifestyle. Retrieved November 12, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (February 3, 2023). "'Gladiator 2′ Gets Pre-Thanksgiving 2024 Release". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2023. Blistein, Jon (July 2, 2024). "If 'Wicked' and 'Gladiator 2' Is the Next 'Barbenheimer,' It Needs a Better Portmanteau Than 'Wickiator'". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on July 3, 2024. Retrieved July 5, 2024. Bergeson, Samantha (July 10, 2024). "Paul Mescal Anoints the Next 'Barbenheimer' with 'Gladiator 2' and 'Wicked' Opening Same Day: 'Glicked'". IndieWire. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 10, 2024. Lammer, Tim (December 14, 2024). "'Gladiator II' Gets Digital Streaming Premiere Date". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 15, 2024. Retrieved December 14, 2024. Rigdely, Charlie (August 27, 2024). "Gladiator II Rating Confirms the Colosseum Will Get Bloody". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on August 28, 2024. Retrieved August 28, 2024. Jones, Tamera; Weintraub, Steven (November 3, 2024). ""It Warns Us What Happens If We Allow AI Into Our Universe": Ridley Scott Explains How '2001 A Space Odyssey' Predetermined The Future". Collider. Retrieved November 5, 2024. "Gladiator II". Australian Classification Board. November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 28, 2024. Van Reeth, Magali (November 15, 2024). "GLADIATOR II by Ridley Scott". SIGNIS. Archived from the original on November 18, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. "Gladiator II (Home Entertainment Version)". Australian Classification Board. November 25, 2024. Retrieved December 10, 2024. Tartaglione, Nancy (June 19, 2024). "Paramount Goes Epic At CineEurope With 'Gladiator II' Footage; Highlights 'A Quiet Place: Day One' & 'Transformers One'". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 20, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024. Adams, Timothy (July 8, 2024). "First Gladiator 2 Poster Released Ahead of Trailer Debut". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024. McPherson, Chris (June 24, 2024). "Here's When the 'Gladiator 2' Trailer Will Drop [Exclusive]". Collider. Archived from the original on June 25, 2024. Retrieved June 25, 2024. Ouellette, Jennifer (July 9, 2024). "It's another bloody power struggle for Rome's future in Gladiator II trailer". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on July 10, 2024. Retrieved July 10, 2024. Stolworthy, Jacob (July 10, 2024). "Gladiator 2 trailer causes ridiculous debate among film fans". The Independent. Archived from the original on July 12, 2024. Retrieved July 13, 2024. Bentz, Adam (October 22, 2024). ""Oh Sh*t": Gladiator II's Paul Mescal Reveals How He Reacted To The Maximus Twist". Screen Rant. Retrieved October 23, 2024. "PEPSI® KICKS OFF 2024 NFL SEASON WITH COLOSSAL CAMPAIGN INSPIRED BY PARAMOUNT PICTURES' UPCOMING "GLADIATOR II", STARRING MEGAN THEE STALLION AND NFL SUPERSTARS JOSH ALLEN, DERRICK HENRY, JUSTIN JEFFERSON, AND TRAVIS KELCE" (Press release). Purchase, New York: PepsiCo. PR Newswire. September 5, 2024. Retrieved September 5, 2024. Thompson, Andrew (October 4, 2024). "Gladiator II movie starring Denzel Washington named main sponsor of NJPW King of Pro-Wrestling". POST Wrestling. Archived from the original on October 4, 2024. Retrieved October 4, 2024. "Il Gladiatore II e Francesco Totti sorprendono il Lucca Comics & Games". boxofficebiz.it. boxofficebiz.it. November 1, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024. "Francesco Totti gladiatore al Lucca Comics: sorpresa in piazza San Michele". lanazione.it. lanazione.it. November 1, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024. "Scuderia Ferrari HP celebrates together with Paramount the release of Gladiator II". Scuderia Ferrari. November 11, 2024. Retrieved November 18, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 19, 2024). "'Wicked' To Win Over The World With $165M-$200M Opening; 'Gladiator II' Passing $100M Overseas Today With An Eye On $60M+ U.S. Weekend – Box Office Preview". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on November 20, 2024. Retrieved November 19, 2024. "Long Range Forecast: Gladiator II Goes to Battle at the Box Office". Boxoffice Pro. October 24, 2024. Retrieved November 11, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (December 1, 2024). "Chee Hoo Mania At The Box Office: 'Moana 2' $221M 5-Day Opening Is Best 5-Day & Thanksgiving Ever; 'Wicked' Wows $117M+ & 'Gladiator II' $44M – Sunday Update". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved December 1, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (December 8, 2024). "'Moana 2', 'Wicked' & 'Gladiator II' Driving Record Post-Thanksgiving Frame Near $132M – Sunday AM Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on December 7, 2024. Retrieved December 8, 2024. Rebecca Rubin (December 8, 2024). "Box Office: 'Moana 2' Scores $52 Million in Second Weekend, A24's 'Y2K' Craters With $2 Million Debut". Variety. Archived from the original on December 8, 2024. Retrieved December 8, 2024. Shoard, Catherine (November 18, 2024). "Gladiator II takes $87m to break Ridley Scott opening box-office record". The Guardian. Retrieved November 19, 2024. Tartaglione, Nancy (November 24, 2024). "'Wicked' Casts $164M+ Spell In Global Opening; 'Gladiator II' Thunders To $221M WW After 2nd Offshore Frame – International Box Office". Deadline. Archived from the original on December 1, 2024. Retrieved December 1, 2024. "Gladiator II". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved January 1, 2025. Edit this at Wikidata "Gladiator II". Metacritic. Fandom, Inc. Retrieved December 11, 2024. "Gladiator II First Reviews: The Grand Spectacle of Action and Intrigue You're Hoping For". Archived from the original on November 12, 2024. Retrieved November 12, 2024. "Best Movies Directed by Ridley Scott, Ranked". Metacritic. November 20, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Thomas, Carly (October 18, 2024). "Gladiator II First Reactions From Early Screening: "A Total Spectacle With a Pulsating Pace"". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved October 19, 2024. Garner, Glenn (October 20, 2024). "Gladiator II First Reactions Call Ridley Scott's Sequel "Unhinged," "Deliciously Cinematic And Machiavellian": "Can't Believe Ridley Pulled This Off"". Deadline. Retrieved October 21, 2024. "Gladiator II First Reactions: Ridley Scott Has Done It Again". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved October 22, 2024. "Directors Pick Favorite Films of 2024: Christopher Nolan Praises 'Gladiator II,' Barry Jenkins on 'Nickel Boys,' Jeff Nichols on 'Sing Sing' and More". Ray Laurence (November 14, 2024). "Gladiator II: How historically accurate is it?". Macquarie University. Archived from the original on November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 17, 2024. "The Only History 'Gladiator II' Cares About Is Its Own". IndieWire. November 22, 2024. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "The Real History Behind Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator II' and Life as a Fighter in the Ancient Roman Arena". Smithsonian. November 21, 2024. Lochun, Kev (November 15, 2024). "Sharks in the arena? Gladiator II's real history and historical accuracy explained". BBC History Magazine. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "Battle of Salamis: The Unexpected Greek Victory over the Persians". TheCollector. July 14, 2023. Archived from the original on June 15, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. Wilkes, Jonny (November 15, 2024). "The real Macrinus: how Gladiator II's power broker became a short-lived Roman emperor". BBC History Magazine. Archived from the original on November 17, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "Gladiator 2's Denzel Washington Reflects On Historical Inaccuracy Of His Character: "Macrinus Wasn't Black"". Screen Rant. November 22, 2024. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "Which Characters from Gladiator II Are Real?". Biography.com. November 21, 2024. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Jonathan Dean (November 22, 2024). "Denzel Washington: 'I made some real clunkers after Malcolm X'". The Times. Archived from the original on November 18, 2024. Retrieved December 30, 2024. "The Real Roman History Behind 'Gladiator II', Explained". Esquire. July 9, 2024. Archived from the original on August 28, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. Cava, Marco della. "Fact-checking 'Gladiator II': Were there really sharks in the Colosseum?". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on November 26, 2024. Retrieved November 30, 2024. World, SPQR | Ancient Rome and the Ancient (January 30, 2024). "Common Misconceptions about Gladiators". Medium. Retrieved December 1, 2024. "Hollywood's Gladiator II: Another missed opportunity for authentic North African representation". The New Arab. August 9, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Willman, Chris (November 6, 2024). "Hollywood Music in Media Awards Noms Led by 'Emilia Pérez' and 'Blitz,' With Elton John, Hans Zimmer and Scores More Among the Nominees". Hollywood Music in Media Awards. Retrieved November 6, 2024. camerimage.pl https://camerimage.pl/en/movies/2024/659768. Retrieved November 15, 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) Davis, Clayton (December 4, 2024). "'Wicked' Named Best Picture by National Board of Review, Daniel Craig and Nicole Kidman Among Acting Winners". Variety. Archived from the original on December 5, 2024. Retrieved December 4, 2024. Lattanzio, Ryan (December 4, 2024). "'Wicked' and Jon M. Chu Win Big with the National Board of Review — See the Full List". IndieWire. Archived from the original on December 5, 2024. Retrieved December 4, 2024. Barnard, Matthew (December 9, 2024). "NOMINATIONS ANNOUNCED FOR 82nd ANNUAL GOLDEN GLOBES®". Golden Globes. Archived from the original on December 9, 2024. Retrieved December 9, 2024. Lewis, Hilary (November 20, 2024). "Movies for Grownups Awards: 'Conclave' Leads With 6 Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Evans, Greg (December 12, 2024). "'Conclave' And 'Wicked' Lead Critics Choice Awards Film Nominations – Full List". Deadline. Archived from the original on December 14, 2024. Retrieved December 14, 2024. Picard, Sylvestre (September 20, 2024). "Ridley Scott is already preparing Gladiator 3 [exclusive]". Premiere. Retrieved September 20, 2024. Sharf, Zack (September 20, 2024). "Ridley Scott Is 'Already Toying With the Idea' for 'Gladiator 3': 'Seriously! I've Lit the Fuse'". Variety. Archived from the original on September 23, 2024. Retrieved September 24, 2024. Hibberd, James & Aaron Couch (September 20, 2024). "Ridley Scott Planning a 'Gladiator 3': "There's Already an Idea"". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 24, 2024. "Sir Ridley Scott on Gladiator II". Apple Podcasts. Archived from the original on November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. External links Quotations related to Gladiator II at Wikiquote Official website Edit this at Wikidata Gladiator II at IMDb vte Ridley Scott FilmographyAwards and nominationsUnrealised projects Feature films The Duellists (1977) Alien (1979) Blade Runner (1982) Legend (1985) Someone to Watch Over Me (1987) Black Rain (1989) Thelma & Louise (1991) 1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992) White Squall (1996) G.I. Jane (1997) Gladiator (2000) Hannibal (2001) Black Hawk Down (2001) Matchstick Men (2003) Kingdom of Heaven (2005) A Good Year (2006) American Gangster (2007) Body of Lies (2008) Robin Hood (2010) Prometheus (2012) The Counselor (2013) Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014) The Martian (2015) Alien: Covenant (2017) All the Money in the World (2017)The Last Duel (2021)House of Gucci (2021)Napoleon (2023)Gladiator II (2024) Other work Boy and Bicycle (short film, 1965) "The Bike Ride" (advertisement, 1973) "1984" (advertisement, 1984) All the Invisible Children (segment "Jonathan", 2005)"Raised by Wolves" (TV episode, 2020)"Pentagram" (TV episode, 2020) Family Tony Scott (brother)Giannina Facio (third wife)Jake Scott (son)Luke Scott (son)Jordan Scott (daughter) Related Ridley (Metroid)Scott Free Productions Category Portals: Ancient Rome icon Christianity Film flag United Kingdom flag United States Categories: 2024 filmsGladiator (2000 film)2024 action drama films2020s American films2020s British films2020s English-language films2020s historical drama filmsAmerican action drama filmsAmerican epic filmsAmerican films about revengeAmerican historical drama filmsAmerican sequel filmsBritish action drama filmsBritish epic filmsBritish films about revengeBritish historical drama filmsBritish sequel filmsCultural depictions of LucillaFilms affected by the 2023 SAG-AFTRA strikeFilms directed by Ridley ScottFilms produced by Ridley ScottFilms scored by Harry Gregson-WilliamsFilms set in 2nd-century Roman EmpireFilms about ChristianityFilms shot in MaltaFilms shot in OuarzazateFilms shot in the United KingdomFilms with screenplays by David ScarpaHistorical epic filmsScott Free Productions filmsParamount Pictures films2020s historical action filmsAmerican historical action filmsBritish historical action filmsEnglish-language historical drama filmsEnglish-language action drama films4DX filmsScreenX filmsIMAX films History of the Roman Empire Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Roman Empire Imperium Romanum (Latin) Senatus populusque Romanus Senate and People of Rome[n 1] Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων (Ancient Greek) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC – AD 395 395–476 (Western) 395–1453 (Eastern) 1204–1461 (Trebizond) Aureus of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. of Roman Empire Aureus of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. The Roman Empire in AD 117, at its greatest extent.[1] The Roman Empire in AD 117, at its greatest extent.[1] Capital cities Rome Constantinople also: Antioch, Arelate, Augusta Treverorum, Mediolanum, Nicomedia, Ravenna, Sirmium Common languages Latin Greek numerous others Religion Roman polytheism Hellenistic polytheism Imperial cult numerous others official from AD 380: Christianity Government Autocracy Emperors • 27 BC – AD 14 Augustus (first) • 98–117 Trajan • 138–161 Antoninus Pius • 270–275 Aurelian • 284–305 Diocletian • 306–337 Constantine I • 379–395 Theodosius I • 474–480 Julius Neposa • 475–476 Romulus Augustus • 527–565 Justinian I • 610–641 Heraclius • 780–797 Constantine VI • 976–1025 Basil II • 1143–1180 Manuel I • 1449–1453 Constantine XIb Legislature Roman Senate Byzantine Senate Historical era Classical Antiquity to Late Middle Ages • Last war of the Roman Republic 32–30 BC • Empire established 30–2 BC • Empire at its greatest extent AD 117 • Constantinople inaugurated 11 May 330 • East–West division 17 January 395 • Fall of the West 4 September 476 • Sack of Constantinople 12–15 April 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople 25 July 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Area 25 BC[2] 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) AD 117[2][3] 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) AD 390[2] 4,400,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi) Population • 25 BC[4] 56,800,000 Currency Sestertius, Aureus, Solidus, Nomismac Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Byzantine Empire a Officially the final emperor of the Western empire. b Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire. c Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see below for currency denominations by period. Territorial development of the Roman Republic and of the Roman Empire (Animated map) The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of ancient Rome from the traditional end of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of Romulus Augustulus in AD 476 in the West, and the Fall of Constantinople in the East in 1453. Ancient Rome became a territorial empire while still a republic, but was then ruled by emperors beginning with Octavian Augustus, the final victor of the republican civil wars. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC, during the Punic Wars, after which the Republic expanded across the Mediterranean.[5][6][7][8] Civil war engulfed Rome in the mid-1st century BC, first between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and finally between Octavian (Caesar's grand-nephew) and Mark Antony. Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leading to the annexation of Egypt. In 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the titles of Augustus ("venerated") and Princeps ("foremost"), thus beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Augustus' name was inherited by his successors, as well as his title of Imperator ("commander"), from which the term "emperor" is derived. Early emperors avoided any association with the ancient kings of Rome, instead presenting themselves as leaders of the Republic. The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs; the Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in AD 69 to the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically inclined Marcus Aurelius. In the view of the Greek historian Cassius Dio, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in AD 180 marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron"[9]—a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire. In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire. Despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous—an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution—and following its collapse, the Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a 50-year period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and epidemic disease.[10] In defining historical epochs, this crisis is typically viewed as marking the start of the Later Roman Empire,[11] and also the transition from Classical to Late antiquity. In the reign of Philip the Arab (r. 244–249), Rome celebrated its thousandth anniversary with the Saecular Games. Diocletian (r. 284–305) restored stability to the empire, modifying the role of princeps and adopting the style of dominus, "master" or "lord",[12] thus beginning the period known as the Dominate. Diocletian's reign also brought the Empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, the "Great Persecution". The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453. In 286, the empire was split into two halves, each with its own emperor and court. The empire was further divided into four regions in 293, beginning the Tetrarchy.[13] By this time, Rome itself was reduced to a symbolic status, as emperors ruled from different cities. Diocletian abdicated voluntarily along with his co-augustus, but the Tetrarchy almost immediately fell apart. The civil wars ended in 324 with the victory of Constantine I, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity and who founded Constantinople as a new capital for the whole empire. The reign of Julian, who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors of the Constantinian dynasty. During the decades of the Valentinianic and Theodosian dynasties, the established practice of dividing the empire in two was continued. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern empire and the whole Western empire, died in 395 after making Christianity the official religion of the Empire.[14] The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as the Germanic migrations and invasions of the Migration Period overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the immigrants and fight off the invaders. Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[15] The Eastern empire exercised diminishing control over the west over the course of the next century and was reduced to Anatolia and the Balkans by the 7th. The empire in the east—known today as the Byzantine Empire, but referred to in its time as "Roman"—ended in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks (see History of the Byzantine Empire). 27 BC–AD 14: Augustus Further information: Praetorian Guard, Roman triumph, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius, and Publius Quinctilius Varus Octavian, the grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, had made himself a central military figure during the chaotic period following Caesar's assassination. In 43 BC, at the age of twenty, he became one of the three members of the Second Triumvirate, a political alliance with Marcus Lepidus and Mark Antony.[16] Octavian and Antony defeated the last of Caesar's assassins in 42 BC at the Battle of Philippi, although after this point tensions began to rise between the two. The triumvirate ended in 32 BC, torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members: Lepidus was forced into exile and Antony, who had allied himself with his lover Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, committed suicide in 30 BC following his defeat at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) by the fleet of Octavian. Octavian subsequently annexed Egypt to the empire.[17] Now sole ruler of Rome, Octavian began a full-scale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. The Senate granted him power over appointing its membership and several successive consulships, allowing him to operate within the existing constitutional machinery and thus reject titles that Romans associated with monarchy, such as rex ("king"). The dictatorship, a military office in the early Republic typically lasting only for the six-month military campaigning season, had been resurrected first by Sulla in the late 80s BC and then by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s; the title dictator was never again used. As the adopted heir of Julius Caesar, Octavian had taken "Caesar" as a component of his name, and handed down the name to his heirs of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. With Galba, the first emperor outside the dynasty, Caesar evolved into a formal title. The Augustus of Prima Porta Augustus created his novel and historically unique position by consolidating the constitutional powers of several Republican offices. He renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second settlement. Augustus was granted the authority of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to call together the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and it gave him the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinise laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed those, is a matter of debate. In addition to those powers, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the prefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius (literally: "eminent proconsular command"), the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With imperium maius, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the entire Roman army. The Senate re-classified the provinces at the frontiers (where the vast majority of the legions were stationed) as imperial provinces, and gave control of those to Augustus. The peaceful provinces were re-classified as senatorial provinces, governed as they had been during the Republic by members of the Senate sent out annually by the central government.[18] Senators were prohibited from so much as visiting Roman Egypt, given its great wealth and history as a base of power for opposition to the new emperor. Taxes from the imperial provinces went into the fiscus, the fund administered by persons chosen by and answerable to Augustus. The revenue from senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the state treasury (aerarium), under the supervision of the Senate. The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented 50 in number because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28. Several legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were united, a fact hinted by the title Gemina (Twin).[19] Augustus also created nine special cohorts to maintain peace in Italia, with three, the Praetorian Guard, kept in Rome. Control of the fiscus enabled Augustus to ensure the loyalty of the legions through their pay. Augustus completed the conquest of Hispania, while subordinate generals expanded Roman possessions in Africa and Asia Minor. Augustus' final task was to ensure an orderly succession of his powers. His stepson Tiberius had conquered Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania for the Empire, and was thus a prime candidate. In 6 BC, Augustus granted some of his powers to his stepson,[20] and soon after he recognised Tiberius as his heir. In AD 13, a law was passed which extended Augustus' powers over the provinces to Tiberius,[21] so that Tiberius' legal powers were equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus.[21] Attempting to secure the borders of the Empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe, Augustus ordered the invasions of Illyria, Moesia, and Pannonia (south of the Danube), and Germania (west of the Elbe). At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by Germanic tribes led by Arminius. Being cautious, Augustus secured all territories west of the Rhine and contented himself with retaliatory raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North. In AD 14, Augustus died at the age of seventy-five, having ruled the Empire for forty years, and was succeeded as emperor by Tiberius. Sources The Augustan Age is not as well documented as the age of Caesar and Cicero. Livy wrote his history during Augustus's reign and covered all of Roman history through to 9 BC, but only epitomes survive of his coverage of the late Republican and Augustan periods. Important primary sources for the Augustan period include: Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Augustus's highly partisan autobiography, Historiae Romanae by Velleius Paterculus, the best annals of the Augustan period, Controversiae and Suasoriae of Seneca the Elder. Works of poetry such as Ovid's Fasti and Propertius's Fourth Book, legislation and engineering also provide important insights into Roman life of the time. Archaeology, including maritime archaeology, aerial surveys, epigraphic inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan coinage, has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions. Secondary ancient sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Plutarch and Lives of the Twelve Caesars by Suetonius. Josephus's Jewish Antiquities is the important source for Judea, which became a province during Augustus's reign. 14–68: Julio-Claudian Dynasty Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty The Great Cameo of France, a cameo five layers sardonyx, Rome, c. AD 23, depicting the emperor Tiberius seated with his mother Livia and in front of his designated heir Germanicus, with the latter's wife Agrippina the Elder; above them float the deceased members of their house: Augustus, Drusus Julius Caesar, and Nero Claudius Drusus Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia the Elder: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus. None of the three lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. Tiberius was the son of Livia, the third wife of Augustus, by her first marriage to Tiberius Nero. Augustus was a scion of the gens Julia (the Julian family), one of the most ancient patrician clans of Rome, while Tiberius was a scion of the gens Claudia, only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the gens Claudia, through Tiberius' brother Nero Claudius Drusus, and from gens Julia, either through Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter from his first marriage (Caligula and Nero), or through Augustus' sister Octavia Minor (Claudius). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "Julio-Claudian". 14–37: Tiberius Main article: Tiberius The early years of Tiberius's reign were relatively peaceful. Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, his rule soon became characterised by paranoia. He began a series of treason trials and executions, which continued until his death in 37.[22] He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of Capri in 26, leaving administration in the hands of Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with contentment. Sejanus also began to consolidate his own power; in 31 he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece. At this point he was "hoist by his own petard": the emperor's paranoia, which he had so ably exploited for his own gain, turned against him. Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his associates, the same year. The persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in 37. 37–41: Caligula Main article: Caligula At the time of Tiberius's death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been killed. The logical successor (and Tiberius' own choice) was his 24-year-old grandnephew, Gaius, better known as "Caligula" ("little boots"). Caligula was a son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. His paternal grandparents were Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and his maternal grandparents were Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. He was thus a descendant of both Augustus and Livia. Marble bust of Caligula in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as encephalitis, which can cause mental derangement, hyperthyroidism, or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his biographers to label him as insane. Most of what history remembers of Caligula comes from Suetonius, in his book Lives of the Twelve Caesars. According to Suetonius, Caligula once planned to appoint his favourite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers to invade Britain to fight the sea god Neptune, but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried on incestuous relations with his three sisters: Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in Herod's Temple at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Agrippa I. He ordered people to be secretly killed, and then called them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea. Also killed were his fourth wife Caesonia and their daughter Julia Drusilla. For two days following his assassination, the Senate debated the merits of restoring the Republic.[23] 41–54: Claudius Main article: Claudius Portrait of Claudius, Altes Museum, Berlin Claudius was a younger brother of Germanicus, and had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. The Praetorian Guard, however, acclaimed him as emperor. Claudius was neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to administer the Empire with reasonable ability. He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He ordered the construction of a winter port at Ostia Antica for Rome, thereby providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather. Claudius ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine,[24] setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire's expansion in that direction.[25] In 43, he resumed the Roman conquest of Britannia that Julius Caesar had begun in the 50s BC, and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina the Younger. She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54.[26] Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero. 54–68: Nero Main article: Nero Portrait of Nero, Capitoline Museums Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included the Roman–Parthian War (a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63)), the suppression of a revolt led by Boudica in Britannia (60–61) and the improvement of cultural ties with Greece. However, he was egotistical and had severe troubles with his mother, who he felt was controlling and overbearing. After several attempts to kill her, he finally had her stabbed to death. He believed himself a god and decided to build an opulent palace for himself. The so-called Domus Aurea, meaning golden house in Latin, was constructed atop the burnt remains of Rome after the Great Fire of Rome (64). Because of the convenience of this many believe that Nero was ultimately responsible for the fire, spawning the legend of him fiddling while Rome burned which is almost certainly untrue. The Domus Aurea was a colossal feat of construction that covered a huge space and demanded new methods of construction in order to hold up the golden, jewel-encrusted ceilings. By this time Nero was hugely unpopular despite his attempts to blame the Christians for most of his regime's problems. A military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate, he reportedly committed suicide in 68. According to Cassius Dio, Nero's last words were "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"[27][28] 68–69: Year of the Four Emperors Main article: Year of the Four Emperors vte Year of the Four Emperors Since he had no heir, Nero's suicide was followed by a brief period of civil war, known as the "Year of the Four Emperors". Between June 68 and December 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion. These events showed that a military power alone could create an emperor.[29] Augustus had established a standing army, where individual soldiers served under the same military governors over an extended period of time. The consequence was that the soldiers in the provinces developed a degree of loyalty to their commanders, which they did not have for the emperor. Thus the Empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time.[30] Through his sound fiscal policy, the emperor Vespasian was able to build up a surplus in the treasury, and began construction on the Colosseum. Titus, Vespasian's son and successor, quickly proved his merit, although his short reign was marked by disaster, including the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Pompeii. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished Colosseum, but died in 81. His brother Domitian succeeded him. Having exceedingly poor relations with the Senate, Domitian was murdered in September 96. 69–96: Flavian dynasty Main article: Flavian dynasty The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Roman Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor. 69–79: Vespasian Main article: Vespasian Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of Galba, after whose death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of Otho, Vespasian was able to take control of Rome's winter grain supply in Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On 20 December 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as emperor by the Senate. Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the Senate, he mostly continued the weakening of that body begun in the reign of Tiberius. The degree of the Senate's subservience can be seen from the post-dating of his accession to power, by the Senate, to 1 July, when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of 21 December, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over the make up of the Senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200 (at that low level because of the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed), to 1,000; most of the new senators came not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centres within the western provinces. Vespasian commissioned the Colosseum in Rome. Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum); he also built the Forum of Vespasian, whose centrepiece was the Temple of Peace. In addition, he allotted sizeable subsidies to the arts, and created a chair of rhetoric at Rome. Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces, having posts all across the empire, both east and west. In the west he gave considerable favouritism to Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) in which he granted Latin Rights to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting a new era of urbanisation throughout the western (formerly barbarian) provinces. Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire, mostly done to help strengthen the frontier defences, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped; he mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, spread them along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Hispania, in line with the Romanisation of those areas. 79–81: Titus Main article: Titus Titus's triumph after the First Jewish-Roman War was celebrated with the Arch of Titus in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria and Iudaea, quelling a significant First Jewish–Roman War at the time. He shared the consulship for several years with his father and received the best tutelage. Although there was some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society, he quickly proved his merit, even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith. However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted in Pompeii, and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheatre begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100 gladiators and lasted 100 days. Titus died in 81 at the age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumoured that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed. 81–96: Domitian Main article: Domitian Domitian bust in the Louvre, Paris All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate due to their autocratic rule; however, Domitian was the only one who encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule—the former his father shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presented difficulty even to obtain—were unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an imperator, an affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon: the emperor as the princeps. His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished Colosseum, and the continuation of the public works projects of his father and brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father; although he spent lavishly, his successors came to power with a well-endowed treasury. Domitian repelled the Dacians in his Dacian War; the Dacians had sought to conquer Moesia, south of the Danube in the Roman Balkans. Toward the end of his reign Domitian became extremely paranoid, which probably had its roots in the treatment he received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions following the short-lived rebellion in 89 of Lucius Antonius Saturninus, a governor and commander in Germania Superior. Domitian's paranoia led to a large number of arrests, executions, and seizures of property (which might help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it reached the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in fear. This led to his murder in 96, orchestrated by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Praetorian Guard and the empress Domitia Longina. 96–180: Five Good Emperors Situation of Eurasia in 2nd Century AD Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty The next century came to be known as the period of the "Five Good Emperors", in which the succession was peaceful and the Empire prosperous. The emperors of this period were Nerva (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each one adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected rather than dynastic, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir. The last two emperors of the "Five Good Emperors" and Commodus are also called Antonines. 96–98: Nerva Main article: Nerva After his accession, Nerva set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason, restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular and therefore alive, but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. Casperius Aelianus, the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was later executed under Trajan. 98–117: Trajan Main article: Trajan Trajan's Column in Trajan's Forum, marble with stone-carved reliefs that show various scenes depicting events of Trajan's Dacian Wars Upon his accession to the throne, Trajan prepared and launched a carefully planned military invasion in Dacia, a region north of the lower Danube whose inhabitants the Dacians had long been an opponent to Rome. In 101, Trajan personally crossed the Danube and defeated the armies of the Dacian king Decebalus at the Battle of Tapae. The emperor decided not to press on towards a final conquest as his armies needed reorganisation, but he did impose very hard peace conditions on the Dacians. At Rome, Trajan was received as a hero and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period.[31] Decebalus complied with the terms for a time, but before long he began inciting revolt. In 105 Trajan once again invaded and after a yearlong invasion ultimately defeated the Dacians by conquering their capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia. King Decebalus, cornered by the Roman cavalry, eventually committed suicide rather than being captured and humiliated in Rome. The conquest of Dacia was a major accomplishment for Trajan, who ordered 123 days of celebration throughout the empire. He also constructed Trajan's Column in the middle of Trajan's Forum in Rome to glorify the victory. In 112, Trajan was provoked by the decision of Osroes I to put the latter’s own nephew Axidares on the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia. The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was a branch of the Parthian royal family established in 54. Since then, the two great empires had shared hegemony of Armenia. The encroachment on the traditional Roman sphere of influence by Osroes ended the peace which had lasted for some 50 years.[32] The maximum extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117) Trajan first invaded Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthian territory in Mesopotamia, taking the cities of Babylon, Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in 116, while suppressing the Kitos War, a Jewish uprising across the eastern provinces. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he took Mesopotamia as a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great and continue his invasion eastward. But he did not stop there. In 116, he captured the great city of Susa. He deposed the emperor Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. Not until the reign of Heraclius would the Roman army push so far to the east, and Roman territory never again reached so far eastward. During his rule, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent; it was quite possible for a Roman to travel from Britain to the Persian Gulf without leaving Roman territory. 117–138: Hadrian Main article: Hadrian Parts of Hadrian's Wall in Britain remain to this day. Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked more by the defence of the empire's vast territories, rather than major military conflicts. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with Vologases III of Parthia around 121, but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed the Bar Kokhba revolt, a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135). Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces, donating money for local construction projects as he went. In Britain, he ordered the construction of a wall, the famous Hadrian's Wall as well as various other such defences in Germania and North Africa. His domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity. 138–161: Antoninus Pius Main article: Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius's reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Judaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britain, but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned. 161–180: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Main articles: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Germanic tribes and other people launched many raids along the long north European border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube; Germans, in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east, driving them into the empire. His campaigns against them are commemorated on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. Busts of Marcus Aurelius and his co-ruler Lucius Verus Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum In Asia, a revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his co-emperor Lucius Verus to command the legions in the East. Lucius was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded—Verus remained loyal until his death, while on campaign, in 169. In 175, while on campaign in northern Germany in the Marcomannic Wars, Marcus was forced to contend with a rebellion by Avidius Cassius, a general who had been an officer during the wars against Persia. Cassius proclaimed himself Roman Emperor and took the provinces of Egypt and Syria as his part of the Empire. It is said that Cassius had revolted as he had heard word that Marcus was dead. After three months Cassius was assassinated and Marcus restored the eastern part of the Empire. In the last years of his life Marcus, a philosopher as well as an emperor, wrote his book of Stoic philosophy known as the Meditations. The book has since been hailed as Marcus' great contribution to philosophy. When Marcus died in 180 the throne passed to his son Commodus, who had been elevated to the rank of co-emperor in 177. This ended the succession plan of the previous four emperors where the emperor would adopt his successor, although Marcus was the first emperor since Vespasian to have a natural son that could succeed him, which probably was the reason he allowed the throne to pass to Commodus and not adopt a successor from outside his family. Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220) tomb, Guangxi, China It is possible that an alleged Roman embassy from "Daqin" that arrived in Eastern Han China in 166 via a Roman maritime route into the South China Sea, landing at Jiaozhou (northern Vietnam) and bearing gifts for the Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168), was sent by Marcus Aurelius, or his predecessor Antoninus Pius (the confusion stems from the transliteration of their names as "Andun", Chinese: 安敦).[33][34] The embassy was perhaps simply a group of Roman merchants, not official diplomats.[35] Other Roman embassies of the 3rd century supposedly visited China by sailing along the same maritime route.[34] These were preceded by the appearance of Roman glasswares in Chinese tombs, the earliest piece found at Guangzhou (along the coast of the South China Sea) and dating to the 1st century BC.[36] The earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century AD and appear to have come by way of the Silk Road through Central Asia.[37] However, Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo (in southern Vietnam), which was then part of the kingdom of Funan near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) and the region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy.[38][39] Furthermore, in his Geography (c. AD 150), Ptolemy described the location of the Golden Chersonese, now known as the Malay Peninsula, and beyond this a trading port called Kattigara. Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed this as Hanoi, yet the Roman and Mediterranean artefacts found at Óc Eo suggest this location instead.[38][40] 180–193: Commodus and the Year of the Five Emperors Main article: Year of the Five Emperors Commodus Main article: Commodus A bust of Commodus, depicting him as the legendary Heracles (i.e. Hercules) wearing the skins of the Nemean lion The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the reign of Commodus from 180 to 192. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius, making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had worked so well. He was co-emperor with his father from 177. When he became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 180, it was at first seen as a hopeful sign by the people of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as generous and magnanimous as his father was, Commodus was just the opposite. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon noted that Commodus at first ruled the Empire well. However, after an assassination attempt involving a conspiracy by certain members of his family, Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity. The Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace", ended with the reign of Commodus. One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long decline of the Roman Empire. When Commodus' behaviour became increasingly erratic throughout the early 190s, Pertinax is thought to have been implicated in the conspiracy that led to Commodus' assassination on 31 December 192.[citation needed] The plot was carried out by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus, Commodus' mistress Marcia, and his chamberlain Eclectus.[41] Pertinax Main article: Pertinax After the murder had been carried out, Pertinax, who was serving as urban prefect at this time, was hurried to the Praetorian Camp and proclaimed emperor the following morning.[42] His short reign (86 days) was an uneasy one. He attempted to emulate the restrained practices of Marcus Aurelius, and made an effort to reform the welfare programme for poor children but he faced antagonism from many quarters.[43] Roman aureus struck under the rule of Pertinax. Inscription: IMP. CAES. P. HELV. PERTIN. AVG. / PROVIDentia DEORum COnSul II His monetary reform was far-sighted, but would not survive his death. He attempted to impose stricter military discipline upon the pampered Praetorians.[44] In early March he narrowly averted one conspiracy by a group to replace him with the consul Quintus Pompeius Sosius Falco while he was in Ostia inspecting the arrangements for grain shipments.[45] The plot was betrayed; Falco himself was pardoned but several of the officers behind the coup were executed.[46] On 28 March 193, Pertinax was at his palace when a contingent of some three hundred soldiers of the Praetorian Guard rushed the gates[47] (two hundred according to Cassius Dio).[48] Sources suggest that they had received only half their promised pay.[45] Neither the guards on duty nor the palace officials chose to resist them. Pertinax sent Laetus to meet them, but he chose to side with the insurgents instead and deserted the emperor.[49] Although advised to flee, he then attempted to reason with them, and was almost successful before being struck down by one of the soldiers.[50] The Praetorian Guards auctioned off the imperial position, which senator Didius Julianus won and became the new emperor.[citation needed] Didius Julianus Main article: Didius Julianus Bust of Clodius Albinus (d. 197), a usurper who was proclaimed emperor after the assassination of Pertinax Upon his accession, Julianus immediately devalued the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius from 87% to 81.5%.[51] After the initial confusion had subsided, the population did not tamely submit to the dishonour brought upon Rome.[52][53][54] Whenever Julianus appeared in public he was saluted with groans, imprecations, and shouts of "robber and parricide."[55] The mob tried to obstruct his progress to the Capitol, and even threw stones.[56] When news of the public anger in Rome spread across the Empire, the generals Pescennius Niger in Syria, Septimius Severus in Pannonia, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, each having three legions under his command, refused to recognise the authority of Julianus.[57][58] Julianus declared Severus a public enemy because he was the nearest of the three and, therefore, the most dangerous foe.[59][60] Deputies were sent from the Senate to persuade the soldiers to abandon him;[60] a new general was nominated to supersede him, and a centurion dispatched to take his life.[61] The Praetorian Guard, lacking discipline and sunk in debauchery and sloth, were incapable of offering any effectual resistance.[62] Julianus, now desperate, attempted negotiation and offered to share the empire with his rival.[63][64] [65][66] Severus ignored these overtures and pressed forward, all Italy declaring for him as he advanced.[67] At last the Praetorians, having received assurances that they would suffer no punishment – provided they surrendered the actual murderers of Pertinax – seized the ringleaders of the conspiracy and reported what they had done to Silius Messala, the consul, by whom the Senate was summoned and informed of the proceedings.[68] Julianus was killed in the palace by a soldier in the third month of his reign (1 June 193).[69][70] Severus dismissed the Praetorian Guard and executed the soldiers who had killed Pertinax.[71] According to Cassius Dio, who lived in Rome during the period, Julianus's last words were "But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?"[69] His body was given to his wife and daughter, who buried it in his great-grandfather's tomb by the fifth milestone on the Via Labicana.[72] 193–235: Severan dynasty Septimius Severus (193–211) Main article: Septimius Severus The empire under Septimius Severus (210) Lucius Septimius Severus was born to a family of Phoenician equestrian rank in the Roman province of Africa proconsularis. He rose through military service to consular rank under the later Antonines. Proclaimed emperor in 193 by his legionaries in Noricum during the political unrest that followed the death of Commodus, he secured sole rule over the empire in 197 after defeating his last rival, Clodius Albinus, at the Battle of Lugdunum. In securing his position as emperor, he founded the Severan dynasty. Severus fought a successful war against the Parthians and campaigned with success against barbarian incursions in Roman Britain, rebuilding Hadrian's Wall. In Rome, his relations with the Senate were poor, but he was popular with the commoners, as with his soldiers, whose salary he raised. Starting in 197, the influence of his Praetorian prefect Gaius Fulvius Plautianus was a negative influence; the latter was executed in 205. One of Plautianus's successors was the jurist Papinian. Severus continued official persecution of Christians and Jews, as they were the only two groups who would not assimilate their beliefs to the official syncretistic creed. Severus died while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, whom he made his co-Augusti and who reigned under the influence of their mother, Julia Domna. Caracalla and Geta (198–217) Main articles: Caracalla and Geta (emperor) Caracalla and Geta, Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1907). The eldest son of Severus, Caracalla was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lugdunum, Gaul. "Caracalla" was a nickname referring to the Gallic hooded tunic he habitually wore even when he slept. Before his father's death, Caracalla was proclaimed co-emperor with his father and brother Geta. Conflict between the two culminated in the assassination of the latter. Unlike the much more successful joint reign of Marcus Aurelius and his brother Lucius Verus in the previous century, relations were hostile between the two Severid brothers from childhood. Geta was assassinated in his mother's apartments by order of Caracalla, who thereafter ruled as sole Augustus. Reigning alone, Caracalla was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty, authorising numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals. He campaigned with indifferent success against the Alamanni. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule. His reign was also notable for the Antonine Constitution (Latin: Constitutio Antoniniana), also known as the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all freemen throughout the Roman Empire. He was assassinated while en route to a campaign against the Parthians by the Praetorian Guard. Severan dynasty family tree Interlude: Macrinus and Diadumenian (217–218) Main articles: Macrinus and Diadumenian Macrinus was born in 164 at Caesarea. Although coming from a humble background that was not dynastically related to the Severan dynasty, he rose through the imperial household until, under the emperor Caracalla, he was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard. On account of the cruelty and treachery of the emperor, Macrinus became involved in a conspiracy to kill him, and ordered the Praetorian Guard to do so. On 8 April 217, Caracalla was assassinated travelling to Carrhae. Three days later, Macrinus was declared Augustus. Diadumenian was the son of Macrinus, born in 208. He was given the title Caesar in 217, when his father became Augustus, and raised to co-Augustus the following year. His most significant early decision was to make peace with the Parthian Empire, but many thought that the terms were degrading to the Romans. However, his downfall was his refusal to award the pay and privileges promised to the eastern troops by Caracalla. He also kept those forces wintered in Syria, where they became attracted to the young Elagabalus. After months of mild rebellion by the bulk of the army in Syria, Macrinus took his loyal troops to meet the army of Elagabalus near Antioch. Despite a good fight by the Praetorian Guard, his soldiers were defeated. Macrinus managed to escape to Chalcedon, but his authority was lost: he was betrayed and executed after a short reign of just 14 months. After his father's defeat outside Antioch, Diadumenian tried to escape east to Parthia, but was captured and killed. Elagabalus (218–222) Main article: Elagabalus Roman aureus depicting Elagabalus. The reverse commemorates the sun god Elagabal. Born Varius Avitus Bassianus on 16 May 205, known later as M. Aurelius Antonius, he was appointed at an early age to be priest of the sun god, Elagabalus, represented by a large, dark rock called a baetyl, by which name he is known to historians (his name is sometimes written "Heliogabalus"). He was proclaimed emperor by the troops of Emesa, his hometown, who were instigated to do so by Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa. She spread a rumour that Elagabalus was the secret son of Caracalla. This revolt spread to the entire Syrian army (which, at the time, was swollen with troops raised by the emperor Caracalla, and not fully loyal to Macrinus), and eventually they were to win the short struggle that followed by defeating Macrinus at a battle just outside Antioch. Elagabalus was then accepted by the Senate, and he began the slow journey to Rome. His reign in Rome has long been known for outrageousness, although the historical sources are few, and in many cases not to be fully trusted. He is said to have smothered guests at a banquet by flooding the room with rose petals; married his male lover – who was then referred as the 'empress's husband'; and married one of the Vestal Virgins. Some say he was transgender, and one ancient text states that he offered half the empire to the physician who could give him female genitalia. The running of the Empire during this time was mainly left to his grandmother and mother (Julia Soaemias). Seeing that her grandson's outrageous behaviour could mean the loss of power, Julia Maesa persuaded Elagabalus to accept his cousin Severus Alexander as Caesar (and thus the nominal emperor-to-be). However, Alexander was popular with the troops, who viewed their new emperor with dislike: when Elagabalus, jealous of this popularity, removed the title of Caesar from his nephew, the enraged Praetorian Guard swore to protect him. Elagabalus and his mother were murdered in a Praetorian Guard camp mutiny. Severus Alexander (222–235) Main article: Severus Alexander Bust of Severus Alexander, the last emperor of the Severan dynasty; Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse Severus Alexander was adopted as son and Caesar by his slightly older and very unpopular cousin, the emperor Elagabalus at the urging of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa — who was grandmother of both cousins and who had arranged for the emperor's acclamation by the Third Legion. On March 6, 222, when Alexander was just fourteen, a rumour went around the city troops that Alexander had been killed, triggering a revolt of the guards that had sworn his safety from Elegabalus and his accession as emperor. The eighteen-year-old Emperor Elagabalus and his mother were both taken from the palace, dragged through the streets, murdered and thrown in the river Tiber by the Praetorian Guard, who then proclaimed Severus Alexander as Augustus. Ruling from the age of fourteen under the influence of his able mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, Alexander restored, to some extent, the moderation that characterised the rule of Septimius Severus. The rising strength of the Sasanian Empire (226–651) heralded perhaps the greatest external challenge that Rome faced in the 3rd century. His prosecution of the war against a German invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by the troops he was leading, whose regard the twenty-seven-year-old had lost during the campaign. 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century Main article: Crisis of the Third Century Further information: Year of the Six Emperors The situation of the Roman Empire became dire in AD 235, when the emperor Severus Alexander was murdered by his own troops. Many Roman legions had been defeated during a campaign against Germanic peoples raiding across the borders, while the emperor was focused primarily on the dangers from the Sassanid Persian Empire. Leading his troops personally, Alexander resorted to diplomacy and the paying of tribute in an attempt to pacify the Germanic chieftains quickly. According to Herodian this cost him the respect of his troops, who may have felt they should be punishing the tribes who were intruding on Rome's territory.[73] In the years following the emperor's death, generals of the Roman army fought each other for control of the Empire and neglected their duties in preventing invasions. Provincials became victims of frequent raids by foreign tribes, such as the Carpians, Goths, Vandals, and Alamanni, along the Rhine and Danube Rivers in the western part of the empire, as well as attacks from Sassanids in the eastern part of the Empire. Additionally, in 251, the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox) broke out, causing large-scale mortality which may have seriously affected the ability of the Empire to defend itself. An antoninianus coin depicting Zenobia, showing her diadem and draped bust on a crescent with the reverse showing a standing figure of Iuno Regina By 258, the Roman Empire broke up into three competing states. The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire and, two years later in 260, the eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Aegyptus became independent as the Palmyrene Empire, leaving the remaining Italian-centred Roman Empire-proper in the middle. An invasion by a vast host of Goths was beaten back at the Battle of Naissus in 269. This victory was significant as the turning point of the crisis, when a series of tough, energetic soldier-emperors took power. Victories by the emperor Claudius Gothicus over the next two years drove back the Alamanni and recovered Hispania from the Gallic Empire. When Claudius died in 270 of the plague, Aurelian, who had commanded the cavalry at Naissus, succeeded him as the emperor and continued the restoration of the Empire. Aurelian reigned (270–275) through the worst of the crisis, defeating the Vandals, the Visigoths, the Palmyrenes, the Persians, and then the remainder of the Gallic Empire. By late 274, the Roman Empire was reunited into a single entity, and the frontier troops were back in place. More than a century would pass before Rome again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of formerly thriving cities, especially in the western empire, had been ruined, their populations dispersed and, with the breakdown of the economic system, could not be rebuilt. Major cities and towns, even Rome itself, had not needed fortifications for many centuries; many then surrounded themselves with thick walls. Finally, although Aurelian had played a significant role in restoring the Empire's borders from external threat, more fundamental problems remained. In particular, the right of succession had never been clearly defined in the Roman Empire, leading to continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, Senate and other parties put forward their favoured candidate for emperor. Another issue was the sheer size of the Empire, which made it difficult for a single autocratic ruler to effectively manage multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems would be radically addressed by Diocletian, allowing the Empire to continue to survive in the West for over a century and in the East for over a millennium. Late Roman Empire Main articles: Later Roman Empire and History of the Later Roman Empire Further information: Dominate, Late Antiquity, Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and Historiography of the fall of the western Roman Empire As a matter of historical convention, the late Roman Empire emerged from the Principate (the early Roman Empire), with the accession of Diocletian in 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284.[74][11] The end of the late Empire is usually marked in the west with the collapse of the western empire in AD 476, while in the east its end is disputed, as either occurring at the close of the reign of Justinian I (AD 565)[75] or of Heraclius (AD 641).[76] The subsequent period of centuries of the Roman Empire's history is conventionally labelled the "Byzantine Empire", with the reign of Heraclius beginning the Middle Byzantine period, which lasted until the Fourth Crusade. 284–301: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy Main articles: Diocletian and Tetrarchy The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St Mark's, Venice The transition to divided western and eastern halves of the empire was gradual. In July 285, Diocletian defeated rival emperor Carinus and briefly became sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Diocletian's reign stabilised the empire and marked the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. Diocletian appointed a co-emperor in 286 and delegated further with two junior-emperors. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy. In 299, he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favourable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganised the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centres in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardised, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy, and created two equal emperors to rule under the title of augustus. Diocletian himself was the augustus of the eastern half, and he made his long-time friend Maximian augustus of the western half. In doing so, he effectively created what would become the western empire and the eastern empire. Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence On 1 March 293, authority was further divided. Each augustus took a junior emperor called a caesar to aid him in administrative matters, and to provide a line of succession. Galerius became caesar for Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus caesar for Maximian. This constituted what is called the Tetrarchy by modern scholars, as each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. After the empire had been plagued by bloody disputes about the supreme authority, this finally formalised a peaceful succession of the emperor: in each half a caesar would rise up to replace the augustus and select a new caesar. On May 1, 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favour of their caesares. Galerius named the two new caesares: his nephew Maximinus Daia for himself, and Valerius Severus for Constantius. The arrangement worked well under Diocletian and Maximian and shortly thereafter. The internal tensions within the Roman government were less acute than they had been. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon notes that this arrangement worked well because of the affinity the four rulers had for each other. Gibbon says that this arrangement has been compared to a "chorus of music". With the retirement of Diocletian and Maximian, this harmony disappeared. After an initial period of tolerance, Diocletian, who was a fervent pagan and was worried about the ever-increasing numbers of Christians in the Empire, persecuted them with zeal unknown since the time of Nero; this was to be one of the greatest persecutions the Christians endured in history. Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–11), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, did not destroy the empire's Christian community; indeed, after 324 Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under its first Christian emperor, Constantine. On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius Chlorus, the tetrarchs are sacrificing to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. In spite of his failures, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilise the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another hundred years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position (John VI retired to a monastery in the 14th century). He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split. The peaceful Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of Constantius Chlorus on July 25, 306. Constantius's troops in Eboracum immediately proclaimed his son Constantine the Great as augustus. In August 306, Galerius promoted Severus to the position of augustus. A revolt in Rome supported another claimant to the same title: Maxentius, son of Maximian, who was proclaimed augustus on October 28, 306. His election was supported by the Praetorian Guard and the Roman Senate. This left the Empire with five rulers: four augusti (Galerius, Constantine, Severus and Maxentius) and one caesar (Maximinus). The year 307 saw the return of Maximian to the rank of augustus alongside his son Maxentius, creating a total of six rulers of the Empire. Galerius and Severus campaigned against them in Italy. Severus was killed under command of Maxentius on September 16, 307. The two augusti of Italy also managed to ally themselves with Constantine by having Constantine marry Fausta, the daughter of Maximian and sister of Maxentius. At the end of 307, the Empire had four augusti (Maximian, Galerius, Constantine and Maxentius) and a sole caesar. In 311, Galerius's Edict of Serdica officially put an end to the persecution of Christians, though the persecution continued in the territory of Maximinius Daia until his death in 313. Constantine and his co-augustus Licinius legalised Christianity definitively in 313 in the so-called Edict of Milan. In 317, Constantine and Licinius elevated three of the grandchildren of Constantius to caesar: Constantine's eldest sons Crispus and Constantine II, and his nephew, Licinius's son Licinius II. Constantine defeated his brother-in-law in 324 and executed both him and his son. This unified the empire under his control as sole augustus, with only his young sons as co-emperors; he raised his son Constantius II to caesar in 324. 324–363: Constantinian dynasty Main article: Constantinian dynasty Constantine and his sons Main articles: Constantine the Great and Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties The empire under Constantine (337) Division of the Roman Empire among the caesares appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans, Dalmatius and Constantius II Having executed his eldest son and caesar Crispus in 326, Constantine also elevated his son Constans to caesar in 333, as well as appointing his relatives Dalmatius and Hannibalianus to caesar and King of Kings respectively. Constantine would rule until his death on 22 May 337. On their father's death, an interregnum followed during which Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans eliminated most of the Constantinian dynasty in a struggle for power that ended with the elevation of the three brothers as co-augusti in September 337. The empire was parted again among his three surviving sons. Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340. Constans was himself killed in conflict with the rebel augustus Magnentius on 18 January 350. Magnentius was at first opposed in the city of Rome by self-proclaimed augustus Nepotianus, a paternal first cousin of Constans. Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother Eutropia. His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetranio to proclaim himself caesar in opposition to Magnentius. Vetranio served a brief term from 1 March to 25 December 350. He was then forced to abdicate by the legitimate augustus Constantius. The usurper Magnentius would continue to rule the western Roman Empire until 353 while in conflict with Constantius. His eventual defeat and suicide left Constantius as sole emperor until the nomination of his cousin Constantius Gallus as his caesar and co-emperor. Constantius's rule would, however, be opposed again in 360. After his execution of Constantius Gallus, the augustus Constantius had named his paternal half-cousin and brother-in-law Julian as his caesar in 355, sending him to rule from Trier. During the following five years, Julian had a series of victories against invading Germanic tribes, including the Alamanni. This allowed him to secure the Rhine frontier. His victorious Gallic troops thus ceased campaigning. Constantius sent orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against Shapur II of Persia. This order led the Gallic troops to an insurrection. They acclaimed, invested, and crowned their commanding officer Julian as augustus after the decisive Battle of Strasbourg, a distinction he had previously been offered but declined. Both augusti readied their troops for another Roman civil war, but the timely demise of Constantius on 3 November 361 and his deathbed recognition of Julian as co-augustus prevented the Roman civil war of 350–353 from reaching Constantinople. 361–363: Julian Main article: Julian (emperor) Map of Rome in 350 Julian would serve as the sole emperor for two years. He had been raised by the Gothic slave Mardonius, a great admirer of ancient Greek philosophy and literature. Julian had received his baptism as a Christian years before, but no longer considered himself one. His reign would see the ending of restrictions and violence against paganism introduced by his uncle and father-in-law Constantine I and his cousins and brothers-in-law Constantine II, Constans and Constantius II. He instead placed similar restrictions on Christianity, and some unofficial violence against Christians occurred. His edict of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan temples and the reinstitution of alienated temple properties, and, more problematically for the Christian Church, the recalling of previously exiled Christian bishops. Returning orthodox and Arian bishops resumed their conflicts, thus further weakening the Church as a whole. Julian himself was not a traditional pagan. His personal beliefs were largely influenced by Neoplatonism and Theurgy; he reputedly believed he was the reincarnation of Alexander the Great. He produced works of philosophy arguing his beliefs. His brief renaissance of paganism would, however, end with his death. Julian eventually resumed the war against Shapur II of Persia. He received a mortal wound in battle and died on June 26, 363. According to Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, upon being mortally wounded by a dart, he was carried back to his camp. He gave a farewell speech, in which he refused to name a successor. He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature of the soul with his generals. He then requested water and, shortly after drinking it, died. He was considered a hero by pagan sources of his time and a villain by Christian ones. Gibbon wrote quite favourably about Julian. Contemporary historians have treated him as a controversial figure. 364: Jovian Main article: Jovian (emperor) Julian died childless and with no designated successor. The officers of his army elected the rather obscure officer Jovian emperor. He is remembered for signing an unfavourable peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, ceding territories won from the Persians, dating back to Trajan. He restored the privileges of Christianity. He is considered a Christian himself, though little is known of his beliefs. Jovian himself died on 17 February 364. 364–392: Valentinianic dynasty Main article: Valentinianic Dynasty Valentinian and Valens Main articles: Valentinian I and Valens A golden solidus depicting Valentinian I (r. 364–375) and (righthand image) a marble statue of his son and later ruler Valentinian II (r. 375–392) The role of choosing a new augustus fell again to army officers. On 28 February 364, Pannonian officer Valentinian I was elected augustus in Nicaea, Bithynia. The army had been left leaderless twice in less than a year, and the officers demanded Valentinian choose a co-ruler. On 28 March, Valentinian chose his own younger brother Valens and the two new augusti parted the empire in the pattern established by Diocletian: Valentinian would administer the western provinces, while Valens took control over the eastern empire. The election of Valens was soon disputed. Procopius, a Cilician maternal cousin of Julian, had been considered a likely heir to his cousin but was never designated as such. He had been in hiding since the election of Jovian. In 365, while Valentinian was at Paris and then at Rheims to direct the operations of his generals against the Alamanni, Procopius managed to bribe two legions assigned to Constantinople and take control of Constantinople. He was acclaimed augustus on September 28 and soon extended his control to both Thrace and Bithynia. War between the rival emperors continued until Procopius was defeated. Valens had him executed on 27 May 366. On 4 August 367, the eight-year-old Gratian was proclaimed as a third augustus by his father Valentinian, who had fallen ill, a nominal co-ruler and means to secure succession. In April 375, Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the Quadi, a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native region of Pannonia. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, during an audience with an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the Danube, Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel in his brain while angrily yelling at the people gathered,[77] resulting in his death on 17 November 375. Gratian was then a 16-year-old and arguably ready to act as emperor, but the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant half-brother emperor under the title Valentinian II. Valens and Gratian acquiesced in their choice. While the senior augustus administered the eastern empire, Gratian governed the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. The praetorian prefecture of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa were officially administrated by infant brother and Gratian's stepmother Justina. However the division was merely nominal, actual authority in the west still rested with Gratian, and with Valens as the senior emperor. Battle of Adrianople (378) Main article: Battle of Adrianople Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of Adrianople Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with Germanic tribes. The Thervingi, an East Germanic tribe, fled their former lands following an invasion by the Huns. Their leaders Alavivus and Fritigern led them to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Valens allowed them to settle as foederati on the southern bank of the Danube in 376. However, the newcomers faced problems from allegedly corrupted provincial commanders and a series of hardships. Their dissatisfaction led them to revolt against their Roman hosts. Conflicts continued for the following two years. Valens led a campaign against them in 378. Gratian provided his uncle with reinforcements from the western Roman army. However, this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other near Adrianople. Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical superiority of his own forces over the Goths. Some of his officers advised caution and to await the arrival of Gratian, others urged an immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens, who, eager to have all of the glory for himself, rushed into battle. On 9 August 378, the Battle of Adrianople resulted in the crushing defeat of the Romans and the death of Valens. Contemporary historian Ammianus Marcellinus estimated that two-thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle. The battle had far-reaching consequences. Veteran soldiers and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties. There were few available replacements at the time, leaving the Empire with the problem of finding suitable leadership. The Roman army also started to face recruiting problems. In the following century much of the Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries. Gratian and Valentinian II Main articles: Gratian and Valentinian II The death of Valens left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole augusti. Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole empire. He sought a replacement augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire. His choice was Theodosius I, son of formerly distinguished magister equitum Count Theodosius. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons. The younger Theodosius was named Gratian and Valentinian's junior co-augustus on January 19, 379, at Sirmium. Gratian governed the western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. He is considered to have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne. Gratian lost favour with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex maximus. The senior augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman troops because of his close association with so-called barbarians. He reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances. Meanwhile, Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a fourth augustus. Theodosius elevated his oldest son Arcadius to augustus in January 383, in an obvious attempt to secure succession. The boy was still only five or six years old and held no actual authority. Nevertheless, he was recognised as a co-emperor by all three augusti. 383–388: rebellion of Magnus Maximus Main article: Magnus Maximus The increasing unpopularity of Gratian would cause the four augusti problems later that same year. Magnus Maximus, a general from Hispania, stationed in Roman Britain, was proclaimed augustus by his troops in 383 and, rebelling against Gratian, he invaded Gaul. Gratian fled from Lutetia (Paris) to Lugdunum (Lyon), where he was assassinated on 25 August 383, at the age of 25. Maximus was a firm believer of the Nicene Creed and introduced state persecution on charges of heresy, which brought him into conflict with Pope Siricius, who argued that the augustus had no authority over church matters. But he was an emperor with popular support, as is attested in Romano-British tradition, where he gained a place in the Mabinogion, compiled about a thousand years after his death. Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, at the time only twelve years old, as the senior augustus. During the first few years, the Alps would serve as the borders between the respective territories of the two rival western Roman emperors. Maximus controlled the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. He assumed the government at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), the prefecture's capital. Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition. By 384 negotiations were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling succession as only a legitimate emperor could do: proclaiming his own infant son Flavius Victor an augustus. The end of the year found the Empire having five augusti (Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius, Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor) with relations between them yet to be determined. Theodosius was left a widower in 385, following the sudden death of Aelia Flaccilla, his augusta and the mother of Arcadius and Honorius. In 386, Maximus and Victor finally received official recognition by Theodosius but not by Valentinian. In 387, Maximus apparently decided to rid himself of his Italian rival. He crossed the Alps into the valley of the Po and threatened Milan. Theodosius was remarried to the sister of Valentinian II, Galla, after their mother Justina fled with the young emperor to Theodosius's territory to escape Magnus Maximus's invasion of Italy. The marriage secured closer relations between the two augusti. Theodosius indeed campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against Maximus. Maximus himself was captured and executed in Aquileia on 28 July 388. The magister militum Arbogast was sent to Trier with orders to also kill Flavius Victor. Theodosius restored Valentinian to power and through his influence had him converted to orthodox catholic Christianity. Theodosius continued supporting Valentinian and protecting him from a variety of usurpations. 379–457: Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty Detail of one of the carved reliefs on the Obelisk of Theodosius in Istanbul (Constantinople), showing Roman emperor Theodosius I surrounded by members of his court and receiving tributary gifts from foreign emissaries, late 4th century AD The division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395, superimposed on modern borders. Western empire Eastern empire Main articles: Valentinianic dynasty and Theodosian dynasty 392–394: rebellion of Eugenius Main article: Eugenius In 392 Valentinian II died mysteriously in Vienne. Arbogast, who may have killed him, arranged for the appointment of Eugenius as emperor. However, the eastern emperor Theodosius refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West, defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus. He thus reunited the entire Roman Empire under his rule, the last emperor who had practical power over the whole empire. On his death in February 395, the two halves of the Empire went to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius. 395–423: Arcadius and Honorius Main articles: Arcadius and Honorius (emperor) Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the West, with his capital in Milan and later Ravenna. The Roman state would continue to have two different emperors with different seats of power throughout the 5th century, though the eastern Romans considered themselves to be the only ones who were fully Roman. Latin was used in official writings as much as, if not more than, Greek and the two halves were nominally, culturally and historically, if not politically, the same state. Arcadius died in 408, having already elevated his infant son Theodosius II to augustus in 402. Theodosius II reigned for more than forty years. Theodosius had two sons and a daughter, Pulcheria, from his first wife, Aelia Flacilla. His daughter and wife had died in 385. By his second wife, Galla, the daughter of Valentinian the Great, he had a daughter, Galla Placidia; his son Gratian did not survive infancy. Galla Placidia, having grown up at Constantinople, married first Athaulf, king of the Visigoths, and then the future Constantius III. Both her husbands died not long after the marriages, and Constantius III, who succeeded Honorius as augustus, reigned for less than a year. Galla Placidia and Constantius had two children: the future Valentinian III, who became augustus in the western empire, and Justa Grata Honoria. On the death of Honorius, the official Joannes seized power in Italy and Thedosius II appointed Valentinian III his caesar and dispatched him to the western empire with an army, which deposed Joannes and whose commander elevated Valentinian to augustus on the first anniversary of his appointment as caesar. His mother the augusta Galla Placidia was regent during his youth. Valentinian III married Theodosius II's daughter Licinia Eudoxia and reigned for three decades until his murder by the rebel augustus Petronius Maximus and his caesar Palladius, who forced Valentinian's wife Licinia and daughter Placidia to marry them. On the death of Theodosius II, the military officer Marcian was acclaimed Valentinian III's co-augustus and married the late emperor's elder sister, the augusta Pulcheria. Marcian was the last of the Theodosians to rule in the east, and only connected to them by marriage to the augusta. When Pulcheria died in 453 and Marcian died in 457, ending the Theodosian line, the court at Constantinople selected the general Leo I as his successor as augustus, beginning the reign of the Leonid dynasty. 457–518: Leonid dynasty Main article: Leonid dynasty The Leonid dynasty established by Leo I was continued by his daughters by the augusta Verina: Ariadne and Leontia. Ariadne married Zeno and their son together, Leo II, was elevated to augustus on the death of his grandfather (or shortly beforehand) in 474. Leo II, still a child, also died that year, but not before crowning his own father Zeno his co-emperor. Zeno, who was then sole augustus, faced numerous rebellions because of his tenuous claim to the throne, including a usurpation by Basiliscus, Leo I's brother-in-law, that briefly ousted Zeno from Constantinople. Other claimants were descended from Marcia Euphemia, the daughter of the emperor Marcian from his first marriage, before becoming emperor. Marcia Euphemia married Anthemius, who became augustus in the west in 467, and had several sons: Anthemiolus was killed fighting the Goths in the west, but his brothers Romulus, Procopius Anthemius, and Marcianus, who married Leontia, sought to overthrow Zeno, as did the generals Illus and Leontius, though each failed to dislodge the emperor. A relative of Leo I's wife Verina whose name is lost was married to Julius, the future emperor, who took the name Nepos, 'nephew', from his wife's relationship with the imperial dynasty. When Zeno died in 491, his widow Ariadne remarried, wedding a silentiarius, Anastasius Dicorus, who was then acclaimed and crowned emperor. Anastasius built the Anastasian Wall as an outer defensive works for the fortification Walls of Constantinople. Decline of the Western Roman Empire Main articles: Western Roman Empire, Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and Migration Period The western and eastern halves of the empire under Majorian and Leo (460) The Roman Empire in 476 After 395, the emperors in the western empire were usually figureheads, while the actual rulers were military strongmen who took the title of magister militum, patrician or both—Stilicho from 395 to 408, Constantius from about 411 to 421, Aëtius from 433 to 454 and Ricimer from about 457 to 472. The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the Western Roman Empire. That year, Orestes, having stolen power from the emperor Julius Nepos the year before, refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy. The dissatisfied mercenaries, including the Heruli, revolted. The revolt was led by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. Odoacer and his men captured and executed Orestes; weeks later they captured Ravenna and deposed Orestes' usurper son, Romulus Augustus. This event has been traditionally considered the fall of the Roman Empire in the west. Odoacer quickly conquered the remaining provinces of Italy. Odoacer returned the western imperial regalia to the eastern emperor, Zeno. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognised by the empire, in which case he would in turn acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other deputation was from Julius Nepos, requesting support to regain the throne. Zeno granted Odoacer the title patrician. Zeno told Odoacer and the Roman Senate to take Nepos back, but Nepos never returned from Dalmatia, even though Odoacer issued coins in his name. Upon Nepos's death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East; J. B. Bury considers this the real end of the Western Roman Empire. Odoacer attacked Dalmatia, and the ensuing war ended with Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquering Italy under Zeno's authority and forming the Ostrogothic Kingdom, with its capital at Ravenna. 518–602: Justinian dynasty Main article: Justinian dynasty When Anastasius himself died, the court at Constantinople ignored potential claimants from the Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty and elevated instead a senior officer of the imperial guard, Justin I, as augustus. Map gallery Empire Orient See also History of Rome Timeline of Roman history Legacy of the Roman Empire Succession of the Roman Empire History of the Byzantine Empire Notes Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included Res publica Romana or Imperium Romanorum (also in Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων – Basileíā tôn Rhōmaíōn – ["Dominion (Literally 'kingdom') of the Romans"]) and Romania. Res publica means Roman "commonwealth" and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. Imperium Romanum (or Romanorum) refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. Populus Romanus ("the Roman people") was/is often used to indicate the Roman state in matters involving other nations. The term Romania, initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a collective name for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the Byzantine Empire (see R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3). References Works cited Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Boston: Ginn. OCLC 1069567291. Cassius Dio (1925). Roman History. Loeb classical library, 176. Vol. VIII: Books 61–70. Translated by Cary, Earnest; Foster, Herbert B. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/DLCL.diocassius-romanhistory.1914. ISBN 978-0674991958. OCLC 902696997. Cassius Dio (1927). Roman History. Loeb classical library, 177. Vol. IX: Books 71–80. Translated by Cary, Earnest; Foster, Herbert B. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/DLCL.diocassius-romanhistory.1914. ISBN 978-0674991965. OCLC 899735677. Magie, David (1921). Historia Augusta, Volume I: Hadrian. Aelius. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius. L. Verus. Avidius Cassius. Commodus. Pertinax. Didius Julianus. Septimius Severus. Pescennius Niger. Clodius Albinus. Loeb classical library, 139. Vol. I. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674991545. OCLC 899735637. Magie, David (1924). Historia Augusta, Volume II: Caracalla. Geta. Opellius Macrinus. Diadumenianus. Elagabalus. Severus Alexander. The Two Maximini. The Three Gordians. Maximus and Balbinus. Loeb classical library, 140. Vol. II. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674991552. OCLC 899735638. References Bennett, J. Trajan: Optimus Princeps. 1997. Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 BC to AD 600". Social Science History. 3 (3/4). Duke University Press: 118. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 219–229. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. John D. Durand, Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation, 1977, pp. 253–296. Christopher Kelly, The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 4ff. Nicolet, Claude (1991) [1988, in French]. Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. University of Michigan Press. pp. 1, 15. T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 605 et passim. Clifford Ando, "From Republic to Empire," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, pp. 39–40. Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary. Brown, P., The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, p. 22. "Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity: The Late Roman Empire". University of Oxford. 2012. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018. "The late Roman period (which we are defining as, roughly, AD 250–450)..." Adrian Goldsworth, How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower (Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 405–415. Potter, David. The Roman Empire at Bay. 296–98. Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678. Isaac Asimov. Asimov's Chronology of the World. Harper Collins, 1989. p. 110. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 12. Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World's Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 63. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 40. Birley, E.B. (1928). "A Note on the Title 'Gemina'". Journal of Roman Studies. 18: 56–60. doi:10.2307/296044. JSTOR 296044. S2CID 162265493. Abbott 1901, p. 272. Abbott 1901, p. 273. Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII.5.23. Abbott 1901, p. 293. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 269. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 38. Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). The Emperor Claudius Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 29. Dio-Loeb 1925, 29 (p. 191). Cassius Dio; Thayer, Bill. "Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 63" (retyped, unproofread transcription of Dio-Loeb-1925). 29 (p. 191). Abbott 1901, p. 298. Abbott 1901, p. 296. "De Imperatoribus Romanis". Retrieved 2007-11-08. "Although the Dacians had been defeated, the emperor postponed the final siege for the conquering of Sarmizegetuza because his armies needed reorganisation. Trajan imposed on the Dacians very hard peace conditions: Decebalus had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, including Banat, Tara Hategului, Oltenia, and Muntenia in the area south-west of Transylvania. He had also to surrender all the Roman deserters and all his war machines. At Rome, Trajan was received as a winner and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period. At the beginning of the year AD 103, there were minted coins with the inscription: IMP NERVA TRAIANVS AVG GER DACICVS." Statius Silvae 5.1; Dio Cassius 68.17.1.; Arrian Parthica frs 37/40. Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-17. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (AD 23–220), Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. For further information on the Kingdom of Funan and discoveries at Oc Eo, see Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, pp. 24–25. Ferdinand von Richthofen, China, Berlin, 1877, Vol.I, pp. 504–510; cited in Richard Hennig, Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte, Band I, Altertum bis Ptolemäus, Leiden, Brill, 1944, pp. 387, 410–411; cited in Zürcher (2002), pp. 30–31. Bowman, pg. 1.[full citation needed] Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 4:5. Gibbon, Ch. 4. Zosimus, "Historia Nova", English translation at The Tertullian Project. 1:8. Dio, 74:8. Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 10:4. Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 11:1. Dio, 74:9. Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 11:7. Dio, 74:10. Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" Archived 2008-11-01 at the Wayback Machine Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 13.2–5. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 4.2–7. Herodian, Roman History, ii.7.3. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 13.3. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 4.2, 4.4. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 14.3–4. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.1–2. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.3. Historia Augusta 1921, Septimius Severus, 5.5. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.4–8. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 16.3. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.2. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 6.9. Historia Augusta 1921, Septimius Severus, 5.7. Herodian, ii.12.3. Herodian, ii.11.6. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.3. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.5. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 8.8. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxv, 1.1. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 8.10. " Herodian says "in their opinion Alexander showed no honourable intention to pursue the war and preferred a life of ease, when he should have marched out to punish the Germans for their previous insolence" (Herodian vi.7.10). Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. New York: Biblo and Tannen. p. 334. Lee, A.D., From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome (2013) p. xiii. Mitchell, S., A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (2014), Chapter 1. Gibbon, Edward (2012). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Edited in Seven Volumes with Introduction, Notes, Appendices, and Index. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ISBN 9781108050739. External links Media related to History of the Roman Empire at Wikimedia Commons vte Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Later Roman Empire History Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates and populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Siege in Ancient Rome Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Spectacles Theatre Toys and games Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Patronage Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Sanitation Ships Temples Theatres Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance Neo-Latin Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Empresses Fiction Film Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations External wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata United StatesIsrael Categories: History of the Roman EmpireRoman Empire This page was last edited on 2 November The 100 Best Movies Of All Time — And Where You Can Watch Them EMPIRE 100 Greatest Movies List by Team Empire | Updated on29th November 2024 at 5.44pm "What are the 100 best movies of all time?" It's a hell of a question to ask, and an even harder one to answer — even for us here at Empire, the world's biggest and best-loved movie magazine. After all, there are all kinds of reasons why individual films stand the test of time, connecting with us on levels both personal and universal. The very best exemplars of the form conjure indelible images, evoke overwhelming emotions, tell unforgettable stories, and bring us characters who — love 'em or loathe 'em — we truly believe in. Ever since the movies began, well over a century ago, they have been finding new and ever-edifying ways to, well, move us — to joy, to laughter, to fear, to tears, to the edges of our seats and to profound experiences that resonate through the years and across generations. From the misadventures of Peruvian bears to the epic quests of almighty fellowships; painterly, whisper-quiet period romances to pop culture shaping comic book blockbusters; and from awe-inspiring animated adventures to singular stories about the human experience hailing from all corners of the globe, to try and reach any kind of universal consensus on the best movies of all time is nigh-on impossible. With that being said then... How We Chose The Top 100 Best Movies Of All Time In creating Empire's list of the 100 best movies of all time, we enlisted the help of our esteemed readers, asking you to share your picks for the movies that have comforted, challenged, entertained and inspired you most — the films that, above all else, made and continue to make you feel something. Then, having taken a survey of your perennial faves, contentious picks, and dark horse contenders, we turned to our experienced team of critics and contributors to pool their expertise. Now, having weighed up the final shortlist and its entries' artistic merit and cultural impact, we have after much heated discussion settled on our final line-up. It will delight some, it may rankle others, but we wholeheartedly believe that our list makes for a pretty darn decent rundown of the finest films this medium we love has to offer. Contributors: Nick de Semlyen, James Dyer, Alex Godfrey, Chris Hewitt, Ben Travis, Sophie Butcher, Beth Webb, Jordan King, John Nugent. For more about Empire and the folks who helped put this list together, head this way. But without further ado, here is our selection for The 100 Best Movies Of All Time... 100) Reservoir Dogs (1992) Reservoir Dogs Director: Quentin Tarantino Starring: Harvey Keitel, Tim Roth, Steve Buscemi, Michael Madsen, Chris Penn Making his uber cool and supremely confident directorial debut, Quentin Tarantino hit audiences with a terrific twist on the heist-gone-wrong thriller. For the most part a single location chamber piece, Reservoir Dogs delights in ricocheting the zing and fizz of its dialogue around its gloriously —and indeed gore-iously) — intense setting, with the majority of the movie's action centring around one long and incredibly bloody death scene. Packing killer lines, killer needledrops, and killer, er, killers too, not only is this a rollicking ride in its own right, but it also set the blueprint for everything we've come to expect from a Tarantino joint. Oh, and by the way: Nice Guy Eddie was shot by Mr. White. Who fired twice. Case closed. Read Empire's review of Reservoir Dogs, streaming now on Netflix UK. 99) Groundhog Day (1993) Groundhog Day Director: Harold Ramis Starring: Bill Murray, Andie McDowell, Chris Elliott, Stephen Tobolowsky Bill Murray is at the height of his (eventually) lovable schmuck powers as narcissistic weatherman Phil Connors. Andie McDowell brings the brains and the heart as distant-but-ever-closer-coming producer Rita Hanson. And Harold Ramis, directing and co-writing with Danny Rubin, manages to spin gold from the well-worn thread of a man stuck in time. Whilst this time-loop dramedy might not have been the first film to drink from this particular trope's well, it is inarguably head and shoulders above the rest. Murray's customarily snarky delivery gets the easy laughs flowing early doors, but it's the way the movie finds deeper things to say about existence and morals as it goes on, all whilst never feeling overly preachy or worthy, that keeps us coming back to it again, and again, and again. Read Empire's review of Groundhog Day, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 98) Paddington 2 (2017) Paddington 2 Director: Paul King Starring: Ben Whishaw, Hugh Bonneville, Sally Hawkins, Hugh Grant, Brendan Gleeson When the first Paddington was on the way, early trailers didn't look entirely promising. Yet co-writer/director Paul King delivered a truly wonderful film bursting with joy, imagination, kindness, and just the odd hard stare from our beloved Peruvian bear. How was he going to follow that? By making one of the greatest sequels — nay, one of the best, most feel-good movies, period — of all time, naturally. Matching wits with Hugh Grant's moustache-twirlingly evil and deliciously outré washed-up actor Phoenix Buchanan, Paddington (Ben Whishaw) is on typically adorable form here as his search for a special present for his Great Aunt Lucy leads to all sorts of hilarious hijinks. Like all great sequels, this one takes everything that made the first so good and builds on it, dialing up the spectacle, the silliness, and the emotional stakes. The result is as sweet as marmalade. Read Empire's review of Paddington 2, streaming now on Netflix UK and BBC iPlayer. 97) Amélie (2001) Amelie Director: Jean-Pierre Jeunet Starring: Audrey Tautou, Mathieu Kassovitz, Rufus, Lorella Cravotta Jean-Pierre Jeunet's fourth feature – his second as a solo artist divorced from Marc Caro – saw the Delicatessen, The City of Lost Children and Alien: Resurrection filmmaker leave behind the overwhelming darkness of his earlier works and step out into the glorious sunshine of Amélie's whimsical fantasy Paris. Sure, a cynic could read the film as the story of Audrey Tautou's monomaniacal title character's relentless, somewhat stalkerish pursuit of the hapless Nino (Matthieu Kassovitz) around Montmartre's dream-like cityscape. But this one isn't for the cynics — it's a tribute to the daydreamers of this world. It's a sweet, nostalgic, sentimental, beautifully sunny, unforcedly quirky romantic comedy played out amidst a veritable visual fantasia that only Jeunet could have conceived. Amélie will always be on our list of things we like. Read Empire's review of Amelie, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 96) Brokeback Mountain (2005) Brokeback Mountain Director: Ang Lee Starring: Heath Ledger, Jake Gyllenhaal, Anne Hathaway, Michelle Williams Ang Lee's adaptation of Annie Proulx's short story (scribed by Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana, and also featuring in our list of the 50 greatest LGBTQ+ movies) retains its source's sensitivity and grace whilst expanding its scope gorgeously, 10,000 words of prose turned into a sweeping cinematic romance for the ages before our very eyes. Played out against the beautiful mountain landscapes of Wyoming (or, in reality, the Canadian Rockies), the decades-spanning love story between shepherds Ennis Del Mar (Ledger) and Jack Twist (Gyllenhaal) — two men who unexpectedly find love on the titular mountainside, only to find it tested over the years as societal mores and heteronormative expectations work against them — is sensually observed and immaculately shot. Not only does it give you hope and break your heart in equal measure, but the multiple Oscar-winning movie's impact on queer cinema continues to be felt today. Even now, almost two decades later, we still don't know how to quit it (and honestly, we don't want to). Read Empire's review of Brokeback Mountain, streaming now on Prime Video UK. 95) Donnie Darko (2001) Donnie Darko Director: Richard Kelly Starring: Jake Gyllenhaal, Jena Malone, Maggie Gyllenhaal, Patrick Swayze, Mary McDonnell A high school drama with a time-travelling, tangential universe-threading, sinister rabbit-featuring twist, Richard Kelly's deliberately labyrinthine opus was always destined for cult classic status. A certifiable flop upon its theatrical release, Kelly's film was one of the early beneficiaries of physical media's move to DVD, with the movie gaining a fandom in film obsessives who could pause, play, and skip back and forth through it at will. Any attempt to synopsise the movie is a fool's errand, but there's more than a hint of It's A Wonderful Life in the way we see Donnie (Jake Gyllenhaal, in a star-making turn) experiencing how the world would be worse off if he survives the jet engine that mysteriously crashes through his bedroom. That the film, with all its heavy themes and brooding atmosphere, manages to eventually land on a note of overwhelming optimism is a testament to Kelly's mercurial moviemaking. A mad world (mad world) Donnie Darko's may be, but it's also one that continues to beguile and fascinate as new fans find themselves obsessed with uncovering its mysteries. Read Empire's review of Donnie Darko, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 94) Scott Pilgrim Vs. The World (2010) Scott Pilgrim Vs The World Director: Edgar Wright Starring: Michael Cera, Mary Elizabeth Winstead, Chris Evans, Brie Larson, Jason Schwartzman, Anna Kendrick, Aubrey Plaza With Scott Pilgrim Vs. The World, Edgar Wright leaned all the way into the things that make his directorial style so singular — excellent needle drops, a poppy visual palette, whip-pans and whip-smart wit — in order to do Bryan Lee O'Malley's beloved graphic novels justice. Michael Cera is on peak socially awkward Cera form here as the eponymous put-upon protagonist who's forced to face his new girlfriend's (Mary Elizabeth Winstead) seven evil exes in a series of increasingly wild face-offs. But it's the film's extraordinarily stacked ensemble (Chris Evans! Brie Larson! Anna Kendrick! Aubrey Plaza!), impressive mixed-media aesthetics, and endless pool of iconic quotes and playlist-essential tunes that cement it as one of Wright's most memorable. This is good garlic bread. Read Empire's review of Scott Pilgrim Vs. The World, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. 93) Portrait Of A Lady On Fire (2020) Portrait Of A Lady On Fire Director: Céline Sciamma Starring: Noémie Merlant, Adèle Haenel Celine Sciamma's magnetic, masterful lesbian romance may be a recent addition to this list (and our compilation of the 50 best LGBTQ+ movies), but became an instant landmark of queer cinema upon its release. Starring Noémie Merlant as an 18th century painter and Adèle Haenel as her elusive subject, Portrait Of A Lady On Fire is a tale of an epic love developed in the quietest, most delicate way, formed in stolen moments and glances. Sciamma's carefully constructed, smouldering screenplay and our leads' electric chemistry are matched only by Claire Mathon's transcendent cinematography, with each impeccably framed, Renaissance inspired 8K shot bringing new meaning to the expression "every frame a painting". Pure poetry. Read Empire's review of Portrait Of A Lady On Fire, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 92) Léon: The Professional (1994) Léon Director: Luc Besson Starring: Natalie Portman, Jean Reno, Gary Oldman In some ways, Luc Besson's first English-language movie is a spiritual spin-off: after all, isn't Jean Reno's eponymous hitman just Nikita's Victor The Cleaner renamed and fleshed out? In all seriousness though, Besson's film — which sees Reno's titular contract killer caught up in an unlikely coming-of-age tale after his next-door neighbours wind up on the wrong side of a DEA sting — is very much its own beast. Inarguably, its greatest strength however isn't Reno, or even Gary Oldman's unhinged baddie Stansfield, but a very young Natalie Portman, who delivers a luminous, career-creating performance as vengeful 12-year-old Mathilda. Despite some of the ickiness inherent in the relationship the film presents between a middle-aged man and a pre-teen girl, Portman's phenomenal performance helps augment an unlikely kinship that winds up being deeply affecting to watch. Read Empire's review of Léon: The Professional, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 91) Logan (2017) Director: James Mangold Starring: Hugh Jackman, Patrick Stewart, Dafne Keen, Stephen Merchant, Boyd Holbrook If you're going to wrap up your tenure as one of the most loved superhero icons in fiction, it's hard to think of a better way than how Hugh Jackman — under the direction of a never-better James Mangold — punched out on the time clock of playing Wolverine. Set in a dark near-future world where an aging Logan is caring for a mentally unstable Professor Xavier (Patrick Stewart) and getting mixed up yet again with some very dangerous people, Logan takes cues from Western greats such as Shane as Wolvie wrestles with his mortality and history of violence. A truly original superhero tale that is mournful without being morbid, Mangold's mutant masterwork is the perfect end to Logan's story (an ending, it has to be noted, given a rousing yet respectful encore in Deadpool & Wolverine). Read Empire's review of Logan, streaming now on Disney+. See where it came in our X-Men movie ranking here. 90) The Terminator (1984) The Terminator Director: James Cameron Starring: Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton, Michael Biehn After his directorial debut Piranha II: Flying Killers fell on its face, James Cameron could've been forgiven for calling it quits on a filmmaking career in Hollywood. Instead, he made The Terminator — and the rest, as they say, is history (which you can read about in detail in our ultimate interview on the movie with Cameron himself). Shot on a $6 million budget, Cameron's sophomore feature may crib a little from Michael Crichton's Westworld and Harlan Ellison's Outer Limits episode 'Soldier', but its action — which revolves around Arnold Schwarzenegger's instantly iconic shot-gun-toting, shades-rocking, time-travelling cyborg killer — is, outside of Cameron's own oeuvre since, without comparison. Made with all the relentless tension of a slasher (after all, what is Arnie's Terminator if not Michael Myers in leathers?) and the kinetic thrills of a balls-to-the-wall blockbuster, nothing has been the same since the T-800 told Linda Hamilton's Sarah Connor "Come with me if you want to live”. Read Empire's review of The Terminator, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 89) No Country For Old Men (2007) No Country For Old Men Directors: Ethan Coen, Joel Coen Starring: Javier Bardem, Tommy Lee Jones, Josh Brolin, Woody Harrelson, A perfect meeting of two creative forces' artistic sensibilities, the Coen brothers' adaptation of Cormac McCarthy's literary great sees the directorial duo imbue the existentialism of McCarthy's book with their signature brand of dark and violent filmmaking. The result is a tense, slow, and mysterious take on the chase movie format, lensed immaculately by legendary DP Roger Deakins. It's also a film that thoughtfully considers the question of how — or even if — good people can ever hope to deal with a world that's entirely gone to shit. And lest we forget, this was the movie that gave us Javier Bardem's cold-blooded sociopathic killer Anton Chigurh, a villain so terrifying that Hollywood has scarcely been able to resist casting Bardem as the go-to bad guy ever since. Read Empire's review of No Country For Old Men, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO, and Paramount+. 88) Titanic (1997) Titanic Director: James Cameron Starring: Leonardo DiCaprio, Kate Winslet, Billy Zane, Kathy Bates What to say about James Cameron's epic romantic tragedy Titanic? It's 'My Heart Will Go On'. It's "Paint me like one of your French girls." It's a steamy handprint on a cab's back window and a frosted breath on a floating door that's definitely big enough for two. It's sparks flying between Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, and Billy Zane being the ultimate shit-eating grinning baddie. It is, figuratively and literally, one of the biggest movies ever made. Sure, Cameron's movie based on the 1912 sinking of the world's biggest cruise liner may have suffered a difficult, overrunning shoot, and sure it may have been predicted to be a career-ending flop. But it turned out to be one of the most successful films of all time, both at the box office and at the Oscars. As Cameron himself proudly declared, it did indeed make him "King of the world!". Read Empire's review of Titanic, streaming now on Disney+, Netflix UK, and Paramount+. 87) The Exorcist (1973) The Exorcist Director: William Friedkin Starring: Linda Blair, Ellen Burstyn, Max von Sydow For many still the definitive exorcism film (sorry The Pope's Exorcist!), William Friedkin's 1973 masterwork is the stuff of horror legend. The movie, which sees Linda Blair's 12-year-old Regan possessed by demonic spirit Pazuzu, endures as a jump-out-of-your-skin shocker thanks to its still-gnarly pea-vomiting, spider-crawling, head-spinning, and crucifix-screwing sequences. But this is no mere jump-scare chiller, not by a long stretch. In fact, the real reason it continues to affect audience so deeply today is because of the way Friedkin, through the figures of Fathers Damien Karras (Jason Miller) and Lankester Merrin (Max von Sydow), so skilfully stages a soul-shaking crisis of faith, sustaining and building an atmosphere of such dread, such spiritual torment, that you can't help but feel you've unleashed something satanic simply by watching it. Read Empire's review of The Exorcist, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. See where it came in our list of the 50 Best Horror Movies here. 86) Black Panther (2018) Black Panther Director: Ryan Coogler Starring: Chadwick Boseman, Lupita Nyong’o, Michael B. Jordan, Angela Bassett, Letitia Wright, Martin Freeman, Winston Duke After his standout introduction in Captain America: Civil War, 2018's Black Panther allowed us to properly meet Chadwick Boseman's T'Challa, and see his Wakandan kingdom in all its glory. Impeccably directed by Creed's Ryan Coogler, it's an astonishing Afrofuturistic vision that oozes with a cool, colourful regality. The culture-rich canvas that the movie creates is beautifully filled with Oscar-winning costume design, a slew of stunning set pieces, and one of the most banger-filled soundtracks of the 21st Century. What's more, its mercurial narrative blend of pulsating espionage thriller and family saga ensures the movie has the substance to support its style. Soaring to billion dollar-plus box office takings, Black Panther's cultural impact cannot be understated — and after the tragic loss of Boseman in 2020, the film lives on as the defining role for a truly remarkable talent. Read Empire's review of Black Panther, streaming now on Disney+. See where it came in our MCU ranking here. 85) Shaun Of The Dead (2004) Shaun Of The Dead Director: Edgar Wright Starring: Simon Pegg, Nick Frost, Bill Nighy, Kate Ashfield, Lucy Davis, Dylan Moran Before its release, you might have been forgiven for thinking that Edgar Wright's proper feature directorial debut would be Spaced: The Movie. Which, honestly, probably would've been great actually. But what we got was so, so much more. A zom-rom-com made with real genre nous and a distinctly British sense of humour, Wright's movie strikes the perfect balance between laugh-out-loud comedy and seriously gruesome undead horror. From its perfectly synchronised 'Don't Stop Me Now' zombie beatdown, to Nick Frost and Simon Pegg's star-making, side-splitting performances, to Edgar Wright's go-for-broke gonzo approach to shooting and editing, this is British filmmaking at its finest. (Plus, the doppelganger scene hits every time.) Fuck-a-doodle-doo! Read Empire's review of Shaun Of The Dead, streaming now on Netflix UK. 84) Lost In Translation (2003) Lost In Translation Director: Sofia Coppola Starring: Bill Murray, Scarlett Johansson, Giovanni Ribisi With her sophomore feature, Sofia Coppola took a familiar enough rom-com set-up — two strangers cross paths in a foreign place — and turned it into a mesmerising mumblecore anti-romance. As listless college grad Charlotte and world weary actor Bob, Scarlett Johansson and Bill Murray share an ineffable chemistry, both offering beautifully understated performances as two people whose geographic and emotional sense of dislocation in Tokyo is simultaneously what brings them together and, ultimately, what keeps them apart, too. As well as that karaoke scene, its ending, in which Bill Murray's Bob whispers words we never hear into Charlotte's ear, is an all-timer. For an anti-romance, it sure does feel incredibly romantic all the same. Read Empire's review of Lost In Translation, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. 83) Thor: Ragnarok (2017) Thor: Ragnarok Director: Taika Waititi Starring: Chris Hemsworth, Tom Hiddleston, Tessa Thompson, Mark Ruffalo, Cate Blanchett, Jeff Goldblum A significant factor in the success of the MCU, especially across its first decade, was the way Kevin Feige cannily employed directors better known for making smaller, more independent movies, and then handed them the keys to the franchise's kingdom to let them do their own thing. Among the best to grasp such an opportunity is Kiwi auteur Taika Waititi, the man who helped Chris Hemsworth's Thor find the only weapon in his arsenal more mighty than Mjölnir — his funny bone! After the more Shakespearean severity of his first two solo movies, Thor: Ragnarok shakes up the God of Thunder's entire world by, well, pretty much destroying it. And do you know what? It has an absolute blast doing it. Full of action, bursting with colour, and boasting a uniformly excellent ensemble — Mark Ruffalo! Tessa Thompson! Jeff Goldblum! Cate Blanchett! — this is pretty much the Platonic ideal of a popcorn superhero blockbuster. And we're pretty sure The Godfather hasn't got a Korg, either. Anybody want a pamphlet? Read Empire's review of Thor: Ragnarok, streaming now on Disney+. See where it comes in our MCU ranking here. 82) The Usual Suspects (1995) The Usual Suspects Director: Bryan Singer Starring: Kevin Spacey, Gabriel Byrne, Benicio del Toro, Giancarlo Esposito, Pete Postlethwaite Five criminals are brought together to pull off a jewel snatching heist and suspicion and shoot-outs abound. It sounds like Reservoir Dogs doesn't it? In fact, it was even marketed as such. But a Tarantino picture, The Usual Suspects ain't. Taking the line-up team-up concept as a starting point for something altogether different in execution, Bryan Singer and writer Christopher McQuarrie's super-twisted, uber-cool crime thriller attains true greatness through its inventive use of a supernatural-horror style backdrop. In the shape of mythic crime lord Keyser Soze, the movie fashions a phantom menace terrifying enough to put the willies up even the most hardened of criminals. Turns out the greatest trick the Devil ever pulled was actually convincing us all this was going to be just another crime movie. Read Empire's review of The Usual Suspects, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 81) Psycho (1960) Psycho Director: Alfred Hitchcock Starring: Janet Leigh, Anthony Perkins Imagine what it would've been like to go and see Psycho in 1960. No late entry to the multiplex. Virtually no marketing beyond some shots of the Bates Motel and some old house overlooking it. And then, for the entire opening act, you think you've got it all figured out — it's a good old-fashioned noir! Janet Leigh's on the lam with a bunch of her boss' money and heading for a new life. And then she stops at that motel from the promos, meets the strange-but-nice-enough Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), and hops in the shower. Then suddenly STAB! goes a knife. STAB! goes Bernard Hermann's piercing string score. And again, and again, and again. And from that moment on, you're rooted to your seat, in thrall to a madman (whether that's Hitch or Norman is your call), and certain to never be the same again. One of the best horror movies ever made, Hitchcock's monochromatic masterwork is pure cinema! (Also, don’t sleep on Psycho II, one of the most unexpected, underrated gems in sequel history!) Read Empire's review of Psycho, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 80) L.A. Confidential (1997) LA Confidential Director: Curtis Hanson Starring: Guy Pearce, Russell Crowe, Kevin Spacey, Kim Basinger Famously dense, knottily plotted, and told in a staccato style that sees the author almost abandon anything recognisable as a sentence altogether, James Ellroy's L. A. Quartet of epic crime novels hardly screams prime fodder for the big-screen treatment. The miracle of Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland's L.A. Confidential, then, which adapts the third book in Ellroy's quartet, is that not only does it viscerally capture the author's noirish sense of Los Angeles as a dark-hearted labyrinth, a City of Angels whose angels are falling, but it also manages to trim all the fat off the original 500-ish page tome without losing any of its soul or meaning. That it also features exceptional performances across the board, especially from Russell Crowe as conscience-discovering bruiser Bud White and Guy Pearce as ramrod rookie Ed Exley, only solidifies its position further as one of the great modern works of noir cinema (and one of our best murder-mystery movies, too). Read Empire's review of L.A. Confidential, streaming now on Prime Video UK and Disney+. 79) E.T. The Extra Terrestrial (1982) E.T. The Extra Terrestrial Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Henry Thomas, Drew Barrymore Over the years, the phrase "Amblinesque" has come to be a calling card for family-friendly adventures thrumming with heart, wonder, and just a smidge of darkness. It only takes a look at the success of the Duffer brothers' Stranger Things to see the Amblin approach will never go out of style. Never has that moviemaking method been more perfectly encapsulated however than in Steven Spielberg's actual Amblin joint E.T. The Extraterrestrial. Equal parts stonking children's adventure and poignant meditation on familial dysfunction and our capacity for healing, E.T. carefully beds its supernatural elements in an utterly relatable everykid world, tempering its cuter, more sentimental moments with a true sense of jeopardy. Boasting an extraordinary lead performance from a 10-year-old Henry Thomas, one of John Williams greatest scores, and an ending that still has us in floods over forty years later, E.T. remains the gold standard for family filmmaking. Read Empire's review of E.T. The Extraterrestrial, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. 78) In The Mood For Love (2000) In The Mood For Love Director: Wong Kar Wai Starring: Tony Leung, Maggie Cheung Set in 1960s Hong Kong, Wong Kar Wai’s In The Mood For Love sees neighbours Chow (Tony Leung) and Su (Maggie Cheung) falling for one another when they discover their spouses are cheating together. It’s a set-up that seems fit for a farce, but Wong uses it instead to create a sizzlingly sensual yet heartbreakingly restrained exploration of, as Chow puts it, how feelings “can creep up just like that”. With a distinctive, noir-inflected visual style (homaged to great effect in Everything Everywhere All At Once), and two of the most beautiful human beings to ever grace the screen in the form of Leung and Cheung at its centre, In The Mood For Love captures unspeakable desire quite unlike anything else. In any other filmmaker’s hands, the denouement – which sees Chow whisper his affections in Cambodia's Angkor Wat temple - could’ve been mawkish. In Wong Kar Wai’s, though, it’s an unparalleled expression of love. Read Empire's review of In The Mood For Love, which you can buy from all major physical media retailers. See where it ranked in our list of the 100 Greatest Movies of the 21st Century. 77) Star Wars: Return Of The Jedi (1983) Star Wars: Return Of The Jedi Director: Richard Marquand Starring: Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Harrison Ford, Billy Dee Williams, Anthony Daniels, James Earl Jones Richard Marquand’s Return of the Jedi, poured from the pens/tapped from the typewriters of Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas, is the perfect giddy finale to a trilogy that changed cinema forever. Balancing soapy schmaltz with eye-popping action set-pieces (*that* triple-front finale is just magnificent!), popcorn Ewok antics with a Shakespearean redemption story, Jedi is a blockbuster finale that sees peril and poignance poised on a lightsaber-edge as Luke (Mark Hamill), Han (Harrison Ford), Leia (Carrie Fisher) and the gang take the fight back to the imperious Empire. Largely swerving the sense of dread that dominated Empire Strikes Back's conclusion, Jedi instead — with all its tactile effects, witty dialogue, kinetic action, kick-ass heroes (and villains), and awesome design work — feels like the ultimate embodiment of everything Star Wars is in the cultural consciousness. Read Empire's review of Return Of The Jedi, streaming now on Disney+. 76) Arrival (2016) ArrivalArrival ©TMDB Director: Denis Villeneuve Starring: Amy Adams, Jeremy Renner, Forest Whitaker, Michael Stuhlbarg Denis Villeneuve's empathic, perception-bending alien visitation drama is sci-fi at its very best. Offering a mercurial blend of blockbuster scale, spectacular special effects and grounded, intensely cerebral human drama, the Quebecois filmmaker's first venture into speculative fiction — bolstered by an emotional, career standout turn from Amy Adams as linguistics professor Dr Louise Banks — takes Ted Chiang's short story and makes of it something vast and singular. With its message that open-minded communication enables us to realise the things we have in common with those who appear vastly different, Arrival endures as a soul-piercing call for understanding in increasingly troubled times. Read Empire's review of Arrival, streaming now on Netflix UK and Now TV/Sky GO. 75) A Quiet Place (2018) a-quiet-place Director: John Krasinski Starring: John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds, Noah Jupe Take a simple concept (don't make a sound, or aliens will get you), a stellar cast (Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds, Noah Jupe) and a director with a laser-focused vision (John Krasinski) and what do you get? As it turns out, one of the most innovative, refreshing, and unbearably tense horror movies of the 21st century. From the second it starts, the imposed silence of A Quiet Place makes it a revelatory cinematic experience. As the Abbott family pad gently around their home, the store, the woods, you feel in your bones that one wrong step equals disaster. The (loudly) ticking time bomb of imminent childbirth sets the scene for a stellar scary finale, but it's the deeply endearing family dynamic at play and Bryan Woods and Scott Beck's subtle screenplay that really sets this apart. Read Empire’s review of A Quiet Place, streaming now on Prime Video and Paramount+. See where it ranked in our list of the best horror movies ever, and of the 21st century. 74) Trainspotting (1996) TrainspottingTrainspotting ©TMDB Director: Danny Boyle Starring: Ewan McGregor, Ewen Bremner, Jonny Lee Miller, Robert Carlyle, Kelly Macdonald For their follow up to the superb Shallow Grave, Danny Boyle (director), Andrew Macdonald (producer) and John Hodge (screenwriter) foolhardily elected to film the supposedly unfilmable: Irvine Welsh's scrappy, episodic, multi-perspective novel about Edinburgh low-lives. The result couldn't have been more triumphant: the cinematic incarnation of 'Cool Britannia' came with a kick-ass soundtrack, and despite some dark subject matter, a punch-the-air uplifting pay-off. Read Empire’s review of Trainspotting, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. Read our complete behind-the-scenes history here. 73) Mulholland Drive (2001) Mulholland Drive Director: David Lynch Starring: Naomi Watts, Laura Harring, Justin Theroux David Lynch messes with Hollywood itself in a mystery tale that's as twisted as the road it's named after, while presenting Tinseltown as both Dream Factory and a realm of Nightmares. It also put Naomi Watts on the map; her audition scene remains as stunning as it was 20 years ago. Read Empire’s review of Mulholland Drive, which is streaming now on Studiocanal Presents. 72) Rear Window (1954) Rear Window Director: Alfred Hitchcock Starring: James Stewart, Grace Kelly Photographer LB Jeffries (James Stewart, one of Empire’s greatest actors of all time) is on sick leave, with a broken leg. He's bored to tears, so he starts spying on his neighbours. Then he witnesses a murder. OR DOES HE? Alfred Hitchcock really knew how to take a corker of a premise and spin it into a peerless thriller (that's why they called him The Master Of Suspense), but Rear Window also deserves praise for an astonishing set build: that entire Greenwich Village courtyard was constructed at Paramount Studios, complete with a drainage system that could handle all the rain. Read Empire’s review of Rear Window, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 71) Up (2009) Directors: Pete Docter, Bob Peterson Starring: Edward Asner, Jordan Nagai A lot has been said about the opening to Pete Docter's Pixar masterpiece, and rightly so, wringing tears from the hardest of hearts with a wordless sequence set to Michael Giacchino's lovely, Oscar-winning score that charts the ups and downs of a couple's marriage. Yet while the majority of the film is more of a straight-ahead adventure tale (albeit one with a wacky bird and talking dogs), that doesn't make it any less satisfying. And let's be honest — the story of a man who uses balloons to float his house to a foreign land, accidentally picking up a young wilderness explorer scout as he does, feels perfectly Pixar. Read Empire’s review of Up, streaming now on Disney+. 70) Spider-Man: Into The Spider-Verse (2018) Spider-Man: Into The Spider-Verse Directors: Bob Persichetti, Peter Ramsey, Rodney Rothman Starring: Shameik Moore, Jake Johnson, Hailee Steinfeld, Mahershala Ali, Brian Tyree Henry Having Phil Lord and Chris Miller's names on a movie is regularly the guarantee of something great, but the full team behind this animated marvel (in both upper- and lower-case senses of the word) is what makes it work. Bob Persichetti, Peter Ramsey, and Rodney Rothman all added something as directors (with Rothman co-writing alongside Lord) and their animators whipped up a visually dynamic, exciting, and heartwarming adventure that literally spans multiverses, before the MCU introduced it. Bringing Miles Morales to the screen was a masterstroke, and Shameik Moore's vocal work gives him buckets of charm. Read Empire’s review of Spider-Man: Into The Spider-Verse, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. See where it came in our Spider-Man movie ranking. 69) Inglourious Basterds (2009) Director: Quentin Tarantino Starring: Melanie Laurent, Brad Pitt, Michael Fassbender, Christoph Waltz From its Sergio Leone-riffing opening to its insanely OTT, history-rewriting finale, Tarantino's World War II caper never once fails to surprise and entertain. As ever, though, QT's at his best in claustrophobic situations, with the tension ramped up to almost unbearable levels in a volley of standout scenes – the tavern, the strudel, to name a few. Plus, Brad Pitt’s amusing attempts at an Italian accent (which contributed to it making our list of Pitt’s 10 best movies, too). Read Empire’s review of Inglourious Basterds, streaming now on Prime Video and Channel 4. 68) Lady Bird (2017) Lady Bird Director: Greta Gerwig Starring: Saoirse Ronan, Timothée Chalamet, Lucas Hedges, Laurie Metcalf With her directorial debut, the wry wit and emotional potency of Greta Gerwig's previous work came even sharper into focus – telling a beautifully nuanced coming-of-age story about mothers, daughters, and the hometowns you yearn to leave, only for them to be truly appreciated in the rear-view mirror. Saoirse Ronan is perfectly precocious as the not-always-likeable Christine 'Lady Bird' McPherson, experiencing fractured friendships, first fuckboys, and fateful fumbles in her final year of high school in 2003 Sacramento. Read Empire’s review of Lady Bird, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 67) Singin' In The Rain (1952) Singin' In The Rain Directors: Stanley Donen, Gene Kelly Starring: Gene Kelly, Donald O’Connor, Debbie Reynolds A joyous, vibrant Technicolor celebration of the movies, that's such an essential viewing experience there should perhaps be a law that it features in every DVD and Blu-ray collection. It's no mere Hollywood self-love exercise, though. As star Don Lockwood, Gene Kelly brings a sense of exasperation at the film industry's diva-indulging daftness, making it a gentle piss-take, too. Read Empire’s review of Singin’ In The Rain, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 66) One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest (1975) One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest Director: Milos Forman Starring: Jack Nicholson, Louise Fletcher, Michael Berryman Ken Kesey's era-defining novel was in good hands with screenwriters Lawrence Hauben and Bo Goldman, not to mention director Milos Forman. Five Oscars were testament to that, including one for Jack Nicholson, who's arguably never been better than here, as a man destined to be chewed up by the unfeeling system (ditto Louise Fletcher, who represents that system in the form of Nurse Ratched). Read Empire's review of One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 65) Seven Samurai (1954) Seven Samurai Director: Akira Kurosawa Starring: Toshiro Mifune, Takashi Shimura, Keiko Tsushima A film so good they remade it twice — as The Magnificent Seven, then as Battle Beyond The Stars. Or four times, arguably... if you count A Bug's Life and the remake of The Magnificent Seven. You could also make the case that Avengers Assemble is a version, too. The point is this: Akira Kurosawa's epic, 16th century-set drama about a motley gang of warriors uniting to save a village from bandits couldn't be more influential. Cinema simply wouldn't be the same without it. Read Empire's review of Seven Samurai, streaming now on BFI Player. 64) La La Land (2016) La La Land Director: Damien Chazelle Starring: Emma Stone, Ryan Gosling, J.K. Simmons As much a technical marvel as it is an acting tour-de-force, Damien Chazelle's Los Angeles love letter proved a ridiculously easy movie to fall in love with, even for those who may have grumbled that they weren't really into musicals before sitting down to watch it. Go on, admit it: You're still humming "Another Day Of Sun", aren't you? Read Empire's review of La La Land, streaming now on MGM+. 63) Get Out (2017) Get Out Director: Jordan Peele Starring: Daniel Kaluuya, Alison Williams, Bradley Whitford, Catherine Keener Even given the darker tones of a few Key And Peele sketches, no one could have predicted that Jordan Peele would place himself on track to become a modern master of horror. And it all started with this, the Oscar-winning kick-off to his film career in which Daniel Kaluuya's Chris meets his girlfriend Rose's (Allison Williams) parents and discovers some truly shocking secrets. White guilt, specific racism, slavery and more blend into a socially conscious terror tale that rings every note with pitch-perfect accuracy. You'll never look at a cup of tea the same way again. Read Empire's review of Get Out, streaming on Prime Video and Netflix now. See where it ranks in our list of the 50 best horror movies of the 21st century (hint, it’s pretty high!). 62) Lawrence Of Arabia (1962) Director: David Lean Starring: Peter O’Toole, Alec Guinness, Omar Sharif If you only ever see one David Lean movie... well, don't. Watch as many as you can. But if you really insist on only seeing one David Lean movie, then make sure it's Lawrence Of Arabia, the movie that put both the "sweeping" and the "epic" into "sweeping epic" with its breath-taking depiction of T.E. Lawrence's (Peter O'Toole) Arab-uniting efforts against the German-allied Turks during World War I. It's a different world to the one we're in now, of course, but Lean's mastery of expansive storytelling does much to smooth out any elements (such as Alec Guinness playing an Arab) that may rankle modern sensibilities. Read Empire's review of Lawrence Of Arabia, streaming now on NOW Cinema. 61) Pan's Labyrinth (2006) Pan's Labyrinth Director: Guillermo del Toro Starring: Ivana Baquero, Ariadna Gil, Doug Jones Guillermo del Toro's fairy tale for grown-ups is as pull-no-punches brutal as it is gorgeously, baroquely fantastical. There's an earthy, primal feel to his fairy-world here, alien and threatening rather than gasp-inducing and 'magical', thanks in no small part to the truly cheese-dream nightmarish demon-things Del Toro conjures up (sans CGI) with the assistance of performer Doug Jones. Read Empire's review of Pan's Labyrinth, streaming on Studiocanal Presents now. 60) Hot Fuzz (2007) Director: Edgar Wright Starring: Simon Pegg, Nick Frost, Timothy Dalton, Rafe Spall, Paddy Considine Edgar Wright, Simon Pegg and Nick Frost's tribute to big American cop movies isn't just a great fish-out-of-water comedy, sending high-achieving London policeman Nick Angel (Pegg) to the most boring place in the UK (or so it seems). It also manages to wring every last drop of funny out of executing spot-on bombastic, Bayhem-style action in a sleepy English small-town setting. Read Empire's review of Hot Fuzz, streaming on Netflix now. Read Empire’s original interview on the film here. 59) Moonlight (2016) Moonlight Director: Barry Jenkins Starring: Trevante Rhodes, Mahershala Ali, Naomie Harris, Alex R. Hibbert, Ashton Sanders Adapted from Tarell Alvin's play In Moonlight, Black Boys Look Blue, Barry Jenkins' Oscar-winning drama (and certified Empire Masterpiece) is the kind of film that seeps under your skin and stays there. Tracking one man's life in three stages, and the love (and lack of it) that made him who he is, Moonlight evokes a sense of intimacy so palpable, the camera's gaze into the characters' eyes so intense, you can't bear to look away. Mahershala Ali and Naomie Harris are impeccable in supporting roles, with Trevante Rhodes and Andre Holland delivering an unforgettable final act. Read Empire's review of Moonlight, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. See where it came in our list of the 50 greatest LGBTQ+ movies (hint, it’s high!). 58) Guardians Of The Galaxy (2014) The Guardians Of The Galaxy crew. Director: James Gunn Starring: Chris Pratt, Zoe Saldana, Bradley Cooper, Dave Bautista, Pom Klementieff, Karen Gillan, Vin Diesel Marvel took one of its biggest swings with this space-borne adventure, which featured the MCU's freakiest and least-known characters (a talking raccoon, a walking tree, a green assassin lady, a muscleman named after a Bond villain and Star-who?!), starred that schlubby fellah from Parks And Rec, and was directed by the guy who turned Michael Rooker into a giant slug-monster in Slither. Which is pretty cool, when you think about it. Read Empire's review of Guardians Of The Galaxy, streaming on Disney+ now. See where it came in our MCU ranking. 57) Blade Runner 2049 (2017) Blade Runner 2049 Director: Denis Villeneuve Starring: Ryan Gosling, Harrison Ford, Ana de Armas, Dave Bautista Putting together the director of Arrival with a sci-fi franchise that – for box office performance reasons — hasn't been overexploited the way some others have, seemed like a no-brainer. It actually turned out to be a big-brainer, with Denis Villeneuve dipping into Philip K. Dick's universe and constructing a sequel that not only doesn't embarrass Ridley Scott's original, but builds out that world, adding layers and texture while still feeling of a piece. Audiences still didn't exactly bite, but between Harrison Ford revisiting his iconic replicant hunter and Ryan Gosling grappling with his own identity, 2049 is a triumph of quiet character moments and glorious, sense-enveloping spectacle. Read Empire's review of Blade Runner 2049, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 56) The Social Network (2010) Director: David Fincher Starring: Jesse Eisenberg, Andrew Garfield, Justin Timberlake, Armie Hammer Or, I'm Gonna Git You Zuckerberg. Portrayed as an über-ruthless ultra-nerd by Jesse Eisenberg, it's fair to say the Facebook founder came out of David Fincher's social-media drama smelling less of roses than the stuff you grow them in. But it is great drama, expertly wrought by screenwriter Aaron Sorkin, who exploits the story's central paradox (a guy who doesn't get people makes a fortune getting people together online) to supremely juicy effect. Read Empire's review of The Social Network, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 55) Taxi Driver (1976) Director: Martin Scorsese Starring: Robert De Niro, Jodie Foster, Cybill Shepherd, Albert Brooks Martin Scorsese and Paul Schrader's violent noir is a gripping portrayal of a mentally crumbling Vietnam vet (Robert De Niro's Travis Bickle), who ultimately figures out that the only way to wash the crime-caked streets of New York is with a nice, big bloodbath. Everyone here's at the top of their game: director, writer, actor, 14-year-old Jodie Foster and composer Bernard Herrmann. Yes, it's still talkin' to us. Read Empire's review of Taxi Driver, streaming now on NOW Cinema. 54) Saving Private Ryan (1998) Where Eagles Dare Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Tom Hanks, Matt Damon, Giovanni Ribisi, Adam Goldberg The sheer bludgeoning, blood-spilling, visceral power of its Omaha Beach, D-Day-landing opening act ensured that Steven Spielberg's fourth World War II movie set the standard for all future battle depictions. Its shaky-staccato-desaturated style (courtesy of Janusz Kaminski's ingenious cinematography) has been often copied, but rarely bettered. Read Empire's review of Saving Private Ryan, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 53) Forrest Gump (1994) Gump Director: Robert Zemeckis Starring: Tom Hanks, Robin Wright Robert Zemeckis' film takes an affable stroll through some of America's most turbulent decades, as seen through the childlike eyes of the simple-but-successful Forrest — the role which earned Tom Hanks his second Oscar in two years. And it says a lot about its emotional heft that it managed to nab that Academy Award when it was in competition with both Pulp Fiction and The Shawshank Redemption. Read Empire's review of Forrest Gump, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 52) Point Break (1991) Point Break Director: Kathryn Bigelow Starring: Keanu Reeves, Patrick Swayze, Gary Busey, Lori Petty "Ever fired your gun in the air and gone 'Ahhhh?'" PC Danny Butterman's well-placed reference in Hot Fuzz confirmed, if confirmation were ever needed, that Point Break is a fundamental pillar of '90s pop culture cool, and one of the most memorable action blockbusters ever made. In Keanu Reeves and Patrick Swayze, we get two smouldering sides of the same anti-heroic coin; in W. Peter Iliff's screenplay, we get gems of dialogue like "The correct term is 'babes', sir"; and in Kathryn Bigelow's frenetic, confident direction, we get intense foot chases, fiery shoot-outs, epic surfing, and a spot of light skydiving. It shouldn't work: extreme sports, bank robberies and male bonding? But it does, every time. Read Empire's review of Point Break, streaming now on BFI Player. 51) Whiplash (2014) 100 Greatest Movies Director: Damien Chazelle Starring: Miles Teller, J.K. Simmons If Damien Chazelle's semi-autobiographical drama taught us anything, it's that jazz drumming is more hazardous to learn than base jumping. Especially when your mentor is J.K. Simmons' monstrous Fletcher: a raging bully who makes army drill instructors look like Care Bears. Though, of course, you could always argue that Fletcher's methods certainly got great results out of Miles Teller's battered but triumphant Andrew... Read Empire's review of Whiplash, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 50) Vertigo (1958) Vertigo Director: Alfred Hitchcock Starring: James Stewart, Kim Novak If Psycho was Hitchcock's big shocker, then Vertigo is the one that gets properly under your skin. With James Stewart's detective stalking Kim Novak's mysterious woman, witnessing her suicide, then becoming obsessed with her double, it's certainly disturbing and most definitely (as the title suggests) disorientating, in the most artful and inventive way. Read Empire's review of Vertigo, streaming now on NOW Cinema. 49) Spirited Away (2001) Spirited Away Director: Hayao Miyazaki Starring: Miyu Irino, Rumi Hiiragi For a Western world raised on Disney movies, Spirited Away was a bracing change of pace – pure, uncut Studio Ghibli. Taking in bathhouses, spirits of Shinto folklore, and morality without clear-cut distinctions of good and evil, Hayao Miyazaki's major crossover hit is distinctly Japanese. It's the film that brought Studio Ghibli – and anime at large – to mainstream Western audiences, an influence increasingly felt in the likes of Moana and Frozen II. Read Empire's review of Spirited Away, streaming now on Netflix. See where it ranked in our list of the best anime movies. 48) Ghostbusters (1984) Bill Murray as Peter Venkman in Ghostbusters Director: Ivan Reitman Starring: Dan Aykroyd, Harold Ramis, Bill Murray, Ernie Hudson, Sigourney Weaver As high-concept comedies go, Ghostbusters is positively stratospheric: a story of demonic incursion... with gags! And it manages to wring a fantastic supernatural adventure out of that concept, while never neglecting the opportunity to deliver a great laugh; or, on the flipside, ever allowing the zaniness to swallow up plot coherence. Ray Parker Jr was right: bustin' does indeed make us feel good. Read Empire's review of Ghostbusters, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 47) Do The Right Thing (1989) Do The Right Thing Director: Spike Lee Starring: Danny Aiello, Ossie Davis, Ruby Dee, John Turturro Spike Lee had already caused a stir with his first two films – She's Gotta Have It and School Daze – but this was the one that changed everything, with Lee in complete command and full of fury. Over the longest, hottest summer's day in Brooklyn's Bed-Stuy, already-boiling tensions between the African-Americans on the block and the Italian-Americans running a pizzeria eventually peak, erupting into violence. It's an absolutely flawless, funny, frightening piece of work, rammed with soon-to-be iconography from start to finish. It hasn't dated a day. Read Empire's review of Do The Right Thing, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 46) Schindler's List (1993) Schindler's List Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Liam Neeson, Ralph Fiennes, Ben Kingsley, Caroline Goodall Spielberg's masterpiece, hands down. You might say the shark looks fakey in Jaws. You may wonder how Indy clung to the German sub in Raiders. But there's no flaws to be found in his harrowing, (mostly) monochromatic depiction of Nazi persecution of the Jewish community in Krakow. Unless you're the kind of shallow person who only watches movies that are 'entertaining'. In which case, you're missing out. Read Empire's review of Schindler's List, streaming now on Prime Video. 45) The Big Lebowski (1998) Jeff Bridges as The Dude in The Big Lebowski Directors: Ethan Coen, Joel Coen Starring: Jeff Bridges, John Goodman, Julianne Moore, Steve Buscemi, Philip Seymour Hoffman You've got to hand it to the Coen brothers. Not only did they make arguably the funniest movie of the '90s — which has since spawned a genuine film cult — they also managed to construct a kidnap mystery in which the detective isn't a detective and nobody was actually kidnapped. With bowling, marmots and a urine-stained rug. Read Empire's review of The Big Lebowski, streaming on NOW Cinema. 44) It's A Wonderful Life (1946) It's A Wonderful Life Director: Frank Capra Starring: James Stewart, Donna Reed, Lionel Barryone, Thomas Mitchell, Henry Travers Frank Capra's Christmas fantasy was the movie that coaxed a war-battered James Stewart back to acting, and a good thing, too: as George Bailey, who's shown a mind-blowing parallel reality in which he never existed, Stewart was never more appealing. And he tempers any potential schmaltz, too, with a sense of underlying world-weariness — one that he no doubt brought back from the conflict in Europe. Read Empire's review of It's A Wonderful Life, streaming on NOW Cinema. 43) There Will Be Blood (2007) There Will Be Blood Director: Paul Thomas Anderson Starring: Daniel Day-Lewis, Paul Dano, Ciarán Hinds If America were a person, then oilman Daniel Plainview (Daniel Day-Lewis) is a vampire. (A milkshake-drinking vampire, if you feel like mixing our metaphor with his own.) Which is why it's appropriate that Paul Thomas Anderson gives the film a bit of a horror-movie vibe throughout and Day-Lewis delivers such a deliciously monstrous performance... right up to the point where he spills literal blood in an empty mansion, haunted only by himself. Read Empire's review of There Will Be Blood, streaming on NOW Cinema. 42) 12 Angry Men (1957) 12 Angry Men Director: Sidney Lumet Starring: Henry Fonda, Lee J. Cobb, Martin Balsam Juries most often amount to little more than set dressing in courtroom dramas. But Sidney Lumet's film finds all its drama outside the courtroom itself and inside a jury deliberation room packed with fantastic character actors, who are forced to re-examine a seemingly straightforward case by lone-voice juror Henry Fonda. It's all about the value of looking at things differently, and a reminder that nothing is more important than great dialogue. Read Empire's review of 12 Angry Men, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 41) The Silence Of The Lambs (1991) Silence Of The Lambs Director: Jonathan Demme Starring: Jodie Foster, Anthony Hopkins, Scott Glenn, Ted Levine Not only the first horror to win a Best Picture Oscar, it's also only the third movie to score in all four main categories: Picture, Director (the late, great Jonathan Demme), Actress (Jodie Foster) and Actor (Anthony Hopkins) — the latter managing that despite technically being a supporting performer, with a mere 25-ish minutes of screen time. Even so, it feels like Foster's movie more than anybody's: her vulnerable-but-steely Clarice Starling is defined by her ability, not her gender. Read Empire's review of The Silence Of The Lambs, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 40) Citizen Kane (1941) Citizen Kane Director: Orson Welles Starring: Orson Welles, Joseph Cotten, Dorothy Comingore, Agnes Moorehead Orson Welles' game-changing fictional biopic, that managed to both launch his film career and ruin it at the same time (turns out it's not a good idea to piss off powerful newspaper magnates by viciously satirising them to a mass audience). Not only did he use impressive new film-making techniques that make it feel like a movie far younger than its 76 years, but its power-corrupts story still resonates loudly. Now more than ever, in fact. Read Empire's review of Citizen Kane, streaming now on BFI Player. 39) Gladiator (2000) Gladiator Director: Ridley Scott Starring: Russell Crowe, Joaquin Phoenix, Connie Nielsen, Djimon Hounsou Ridley Scott's comeback (after a bad run with 1492, White Squall and G.I. Jane). Russell Crowe's big Hollywood breakthrough. And, thanks to the scope of Scott's visual ambition combined with a leap forward in CGI quality, it’s the movie that showed the industry you could make colossal historical epics commercially viable once more. Yes, we were entertained. Read Empire's review of Gladiator, streaming now on ITVX. 38) The Good, The Bad And The Ugly (1966) Director: Sergio Leone Starring: Clint Eastwood, Eli Wallach, Lee Van Cleef Sergio Leone sets three renegades against each other in a treasure hunt backdropped against the chaos and madness of the American Civil War. The result is the movie on his CV which best balances art and entertainment. Clint Eastwood and Lee Van Cleef are great value as Blondie and Angel Eyes, but it's Eli Wallach's Tuco who steals this Wild West show: "When you have to shoot, shoot. Don't talk." Read Empire's review of The Good, The Bad And The Ugly, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 37) Seven (1995) Director: David Fincher Starring: Morgan Freeman, Brad Pitt, Kevin Spacey, Gwyneth Paltrow David Fincher's second debut movie sounded like a daft, novelty serial-killer thriller, but turned out to be a deeply rattling proper-shocker, which had the guts to throw down its biggest narrative twist halfway through, as warped murderer-moralist John Doe gives himself up. A twist made all the more effective thanks to Kevin Spacey's insistence he wasn't billed until the end credits. Read Empire's review of Seven, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 36) Eternal Sunshine Of The Spotless Mind (2004) Eternal Sunshine Of The Spotless Mind Director: Michel Gondry Starring: Jim Carrey, Kate Winslet, Tom Wilkinson, Elijah Wood, Mark Ruffalo Director Michel Gondry and screenwriter Charlie Kaufman deconstruct the relationship drama via a fantastic psycho-sci-fi device, as Jim Carrey's Joel races through his own mind to reverse a process by which all his memories of his failed relationship with Kate Winslet's Clementine are about to be erased. Which is a brilliantly weird, round-the-houses way of reminding us that heartbreak should be valued as one of the things that makes us. Better to have loved and lost, and all that. Read Empire's review of Eternal Sunshine Of The Spotless Mind, streaming on NOW Cinema, Sky Go and Netflix now. 35) The Shining (1980) The Shining Director: Stanley Kubrick Starring: Jack Nicholson, Shelley Duvall, Danny Lloyd Stanley Kubrick's elegant adaptation of Stephen King's haunted-hotel story, starring a wonderfully deranged Jack Nicholson, is often cited as The Scariest Horror Movie Ever Made (perhaps tied with The Exorcist), but it's also the Least Suitable Movie To Watch On Father's Day Ever. Unless you're the kind of Dad who thinks obsessively typing the same sentence over and over then chasing after your wife and kid with an axe constitutes good parenting. Read Empire's review of The Shining, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. See where it came in our Stephen King movie ranking. 34) The Lord Of The Rings: The Two Towers (2002) The Lord Of The Rings: The Two Towers Director: Peter Jackson Starring: Elijah Wood, Sean Astin, Andy Serkis, Ian McKellen, Viggo Mortensen, Orlando Bloom Aside from Boromir, Aragorn and the small-town denizens of Bree, there's not a huge amount of human representation in first LOTR outing The Fellowship Of The Ring. So one of the pleasures of The Two Towers is seeing Middle-earth truly open up after the arrival at Rohan, where the series takes on more of a sweeping, Nordic feel... Building up, of course, to Helm's Deep, a ferocious action crescendo, which features gratuitous scenes of dwarf-tossing. Read Empire's review of The Two Towers, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 33) Casablanca (1942) Casablanca Director: Michael Curtiz Starring: Humphrey Bogart, Ingrid Bergman, Paul Henreid, Claude Rains When you've got such a clear-cut good-vs-evil scenario as World War II, it takes guts to put out a film which lets its (anti-) hero lurk for so long in a grey area of that conflict — while said war was still raging, no less. Of course, Rick (Humphrey Bogart) eventually does the right thing, but watching him make both the Resistance and the Nazis squirm right up to the final scene is truly joyous. Read Empire's review of Casablanca, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 32) The Thing (1982) Director: John Carpenter Starring: Kurt Russell, Wilford Brimley, Keith David, Richard Masur Any argument about whether or not modern remakes can ever be better than the 'classic' originals should be ended pretty quickly by mentioning this movie. With the help of SFX genius Rob Bottin, John Carpenter took the bones of Howard Hawks' 1951 The Thing From Another World and crafted an intense, frosty sci-fi thriller featuring Hollywood's ultimate movie monster: one that could be anyone at any time, before contorting into a genuine biological nightmare. Read Empire's review of The Thing, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 31) Interstellar (2014) Interstellar Director: Christopher Nolan Starring: Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway, Jessica Chastain Christopher Nolan's tribute to 2001 and The Right Stuff (with a little added The Black Hole) presents long-distance space travel as realistically as it's possible to with the theoretical physics currently available. From the effects of gravity to the emotional implication of time dilation, it mixes science and sentiment to great effect. And it has a sarcastic robot, too. Read Empire's review of Interstellar, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 30) Heat (1995) Heat Director: Michael Mann Starring: Al Pacino, Robert De Niro, Val Kilmer, Jon Voight Michael Mann's starry upgrade of his TV movie LA Takedown squeezed every last drop of icon-juice out of its heavyweight double-billing, bringing Pacino and De Niro together on screen, sharing scenes for the very first time. The trick was to only do it twice during the entire running time, with that first diner meeting virtually fizzing with alpha-star electricity. Read Empire's review of Heat, streaming now on Disney+. 29) Apocalypse Now (1979) Apocalypse Now (1979) Director: Francis Ford Coppola Starring: Martin Sheen, Marlon Brando, Robert Duvall The film-maker go-to movie du jour. Gareth Edwards cited Coppola's vivid and visceral jungle trek as a major influence on Rogue One; Jordan Vogt-Roberts drew from it extensively for Kong: Skull Island, and Matt Reeves sees War For The Planet Of The Apes as his own simian-related tribute. Hardly surprising; it's both a visually rich war movie and also a powerfully resonant journey into the darkest recesses of the human soul. Read Empire's review of Apocalypse Now, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 28) Indiana Jones And The Last Crusade (1989) Indiana Jones And The Last Crusade Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Harrison Ford, Sean Connery, alison Doody, Denholm Elliott, John Rhys-Davies You voted... wisely. There may only be 12 years' difference between Harrison Ford and Sean Connery, but it's hard to imagine two better actors to play a bickering father and son, off on a globetrotting, Nazi-bashing, mythical mystery tour. After all, you've got Spielberg/Lucas' own version of James Bond... And the original Bond himself. Read Empire's review of Indiana Jones And The Last Crusade, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. Here’s our argument for why it’s the best Indiana Jones film. 27) The Lord Of The Rings: The Return Of The King (2003) Director: Peter Jackson Starring: Elijah Wood, Sean Astin, Viggo Mortensen, Ian McKellen, Orlando Bloom Anyone who bangs on about all those endings is missing the many joys of Peter Jackson's Academy Award-laden trilogy-closer. It has some of the most colossal and entertaining battle scenes ever mounted; it has an awesome giant spider; it has that fantastic dramatic-ironic twist when Gollum saves the day through his own treachery; and it has that bit where Eowyn says, "I am no man". Deserves. Every. Oscar. Read Empire's review of The Return Of The King, streaming now on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 26) Die Hard (1988) Director: John McTiernan Starring: Bruce Willis, Alan Rickman, Bonnie Bedelia, Reginald VelJohnson One man using only his wits and whatever he can extract from his environment. A gang of bad guys terrorising the locals. If Die Hard wasn't set in a skyscraper during the 1980s, it could easily be a Western. A Western which, in the form of Bruce Willis, not only convinced the world a TV-comedy star could be an action-hero, but also gave us one of our most seethingly charismatic big-screen villain-players: Alan Rickman. Read Empire's review of Die Hard, streaming now on Disney+. 25) Fight Club (1999) Fight Club Director: David Fincher Starring: Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, Helena Bonham Carter, Jared Leto After all the pre-release hype about the dark brutality of Fight Club, one of the most surprising things to discover on seeing it was just how funny it actually was. And just as well; if you weren't laughing at Bob's "bitch-tits" or Tyler Durden's human-fat soap-making antics, it would be pretty hard to process David Fincher's bravura take on Chuck Palahniuk's tale of modern masculinity running insanely rampant. Read Empire's review of Fight Club, streaming on Disney+ now. 24) Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) Terminator 2 Judgment Day Director: James Cameron Starring: Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton, Edward Furlong, Robert Patrick Making Arnie's T-800 a protector rather than killer for part two could have been a shark-jump moment for the Terminator series, but we're talking about James Cameron here. So it paid off — especially as this Terminator was just as much a student in human behaviour (with John Connor his teacher) as guardian, with some darkly comical results ("He'll live"). Is it really better than the original? In terms of scale and sheer, balls-out action spectacle, yes. Read Empire's review of Terminator 2: Judgment Day, streaming now on Studiocanal Presents. 23) 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) 2001 A Space Odyssey Director: Stanley Kubrick Starring: Keir Dullea, Gary Lockwood, William Sylvester, Daniel Richter You've voted it your favourite Kubrick movie, which makes sense to us. It is arguably his greatest gift to cinema, an infinitely ambitious vision of a space-faring future whose narrative centres on the most pivotal moment in human evolution since some ape-man first bashed another ape-man with an old bone. Graceful, gorgeous, unwearied by time's passing. Rather like that monolith. Read Empire's review of 2001: A Space Odyssey, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. See where it ranked on our list of the best sci-fi movies of all time. 22) Avengers: Endgame (2019) Avengers: Endgame Directors: Anthony Russo, Joe Russo Starring: Chris Evans, Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Scarlett Johansson, Paul Rudd, Jeremy Renner, Josh Brolin What does it take to dethrone James Cameron? A blockbuster of behemothic proportions. The weight of expectations on Endgame — the culmination of 11 years of interweaving stories, following up the greatest cinematic cliffhanger since The Empire Strikes Back — was immense, which only makes it more miraculous that the Russo Brothers (and writers Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeeley) delivered a thrilling, adventurous, emotional time-travelling trip through the entire MCU so far. The character pay-offs are just as staggering as the action — and when Steve Rogers finally proved worthy enough to lift Mjolnir, a stone-cold cultural moment was created. Read Empire's review of Avengers: Endgame, streaming now on Disney+. 21) Alien (1979) Director: Ridley Scott Starring: Sigourney Weaver, Tom Skerritt, John Hurt, Ian Holm, Harry Dean Stanton On the one hand, re-watching Ridley Scott's deep-space monster-slasher (and it's a movie which can handle as many re-watches as you can throw at it) makes you appreciate why he keeps coming back to that universe: it's so intoxicatingly atmospheric and deeply compelling, it sticks to you like a parasite. On the other hand, it really does make you wonder why he feels the need to keep tinkering with new cuts. After all, he got it perfectly right the first time around. Read Empire's review of Alien, streaming on Disney+ now. See where it came in our Alien movie ranking. 20) The Matrix (1999) How two sibling indie film-makers with only a slick, sexy little crime film to their name (Bound) created their own blockbuster sci-fi franchise. And opened up western audiences to the truth that kung-fu acrobatics are so much more fun than watching American or European muscle-men waving guns around. While also making everyone examine some fundamental philosophical questions about reality. Thanks to the Wachowskis, we all took the red pill, and we've never regretted it. (And whilst it’s undoubtedly the best of the franchise, we still think the sequels are underrated.) Read Empire's review of The Matrix, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 19) Inception (2010) Inception Director: Christopher Nolan Starring: Leonardo DiCaprio, Cillian Murphy, Tom Hardy, Elliot Page, Joseph Gordon-Levitt Will Christopher Nolan ever make a Bond movie? Well, with Inception, he kind of already has. Except, instead of a British secret agent, we get a freelance corporate dream-thief. And the big climactic action sequence is so huge it takes up almost half the movie, and is actually three big action sequences temporally nested inside each other around a surreal, metaphysical-conflict core. Couldn’t be simpler, really. Read Empire's review of Inception, streaming now on Now Cinema and Sky Go. 18) Parasite (2019) Parasite Director: Bong Joon-ho Starring: Song Kang-ho, Lee Sun-kyun, Cho Yeo-jeong, Park So-dam, Choi Woo-sik Few award ceremony moments stick in the mind more than Parasite taking the Best Picture gong at the Oscars in 2020. It's no surprise that it made history as the first non-English language movie to do so – this South Korean genre-defying delight offers some of the biggest twists and expertly mounted tension in recent memory, with a family of excellent performances from Song Kang-ho, Park So-dam, Choi Woo-sik and more. Bitingly satirical, darkly comedic and made with unmatched precision, Parasite doesn't just overcome the 'one inch barrier' of subtitles, as referenced in director Bong Joon-ho's acceptance speech – it obliterates it entirely. Read Empire's review of Parasite, streaming on Netflix now. 17) Aliens (1986) Aliens Director: James Cameron Starring: Sigourney Weaver, Michael Biehn, Carrie Henn, Paul Reiser, Bill Paxton The genius of James Cameron's self-penned Alien follow-up was to not try to top the original as one of the greatest ever horror movies. Instead, he transplanted the Alien (and, significantly, Ripley) to a different genre, and created one of the greatest ever action movies. That's also a Vietnam metaphor. And also one of the most enduringly quotable films. Read Empire's review of Aliens, streaming on Disney+ now. 16) Blade Runner (1982) Blade Runner Director: Ridley Scott, Starring: Harrison Ford, Rutger Hauer, Sean Young, Daryl Hannah Rain-lashed, noodle-bar-packed streets shrouded in perpetual night, with giant adverts and neon signs doing the job you'd usually expect of the sun itself... The not-too-distant future had never looked cooler than in Ridley Scott's sci-fi gumshoe noir, and we're not sure it ever will. Read Empire's review of Blade Runner, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 15) Jurassic Park (1993) Jurassic Park Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Sam Neill, Laura Dern, Jeff Goldblum, Richard Attenborough When dinosaurs first ruled the movie-Earth, they did so in a herky-jerky stop-motion manner that while charmingly effective, required a fair dose of disbelief-suspension. When Steven Spielberg brought them back on Isla Nublar, he perfected the summer blockbuster, and we felt for the first time they could be real, breathing animals (as opposed to monsters). And that's as much thanks to Stan Winston's astonishing animatronics work as to ILM's groundbreaking CGI. Read Empire's review of Jurassic Park, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 14) The Godfather Part II (1974) Godfather Part II, TheGodfather Part II, The ©TMDB films 240 Director: Francis Ford Coppola Starring: Al Pacino, Robert De Niro, John Cazale, Diane Keaton Often cited as the greatest-ever sequel, TGPII, as no-one's ever called it, is more accurately described as a seprequel. In a narrative masterstroke, it parallels Michael's (Al Pacino) consolidation of power with the ascendance of his Dad, Vito (Robert De Niro); the triumph of one paving the way to the utter corruption of the other. Read Empire's review of The Godfather Part II, streaming now on Paramount+. 13) Back To The Future (1985) Back To The Future Director: Robert Zemeckis Starring: Michael J. Fox, Christopher Lloyd, Lea Thompson, Crispin Glover Part science-fiction caper, part generational culture-clash movie, part weirdo family drama (in which the hero has to rescue his own existence after his mother falls in lust with him, eww), Back To The Future still manages to be timeless despite being so rooted in, well, time. And it might just have the best title of anything on this entire list. Read Empire's review of Back To The Future, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 12) Mad Max: Fury Road (2015) Mad Max: Fury Road Director: George Miller Starring: Tom Hardy, Charlize Theron, Nicholas Hoult, Riley Keough In which old dog George Miller taught Hollywood some new tricks. Stripping the chase movie down to its raw essentials (the plot is basically: run away... then run back again!), Miller expertly built the narrative through some of the most astonishing and gloriously operatic action scenes we'd seen in yonks. While also ensuring his female characters are the film's strongest; Charlize Theron's Furiosa and Immortan Joe's ex-brides are inheriting a world "killed" by men… Read Empire's review of Mad Max: Fury Road, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 11) Star Wars (1977) Mark Hamill in Star Wars A New Hope Director: George Lucas Starring: Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Mark Hamill Such is its cultural ubiquity and omnipresence today that it's hard now to even imagine the seismic impact of the original Star Wars — of that opening moment in which the Star Destroyer looms over the camera for a seeming infinity; of that first glimpse of a binary sunset; of that first, well, everything that we've come to know and love about that galaxy far, far away. Bursting with iconic aliens, hyper-space travel, and galactic overlords, George Lucas transplanted the classic hero's journey narrative (Mark Hamill's Luke Skywalker is the simple farm-boy who discovers he's got a much bigger destiny out in the world) into a boundlessly imaginative universe of laser-swords and mystical religions, space-princesses and loveable rogues. From its incredible model work, to its cosmic dogfights, to the look of the opening crawl as it drifts off into the stars, the original Star Wars changed everything – and the world at large has been feeling the Force ever since. Read Empire's review of Star Wars, streaming now on Disney+. 10) Goodfellas (1990) GoodFellas Director: Martin Scorsese Starring: Robert De Niro, Ray Liotta, Joe Pesci, Lorraine Bracco, Paul Sorvino No film hits like Goodfellas. Just like the cocaine that turns effortlessly charismatic gangster fanboy Henry Hill into a reckless maniac, that drives him to the edge of a heart attack, that makes him paranoid (OR IS HE?), the film enters your system with a jolt, giving you an immediate rush, and keeps you wanting more, more, more, MORE, until it finally comes crashing down, back to bleak reality, and then just finishes. And you have to live the rest of your life like a schnook, because, frankly, no other film compares to Goodfellas. The only solution: another big snort of Goodfellas. Scorsese, writer Nicholas Pileggi and editor Thelma Schoonmaker constructed almost the entire film like a trailer, one scene bleeding into the next, not giving you the opportunity to stop watching, to let go, to take a breath. It’s an unstoppable feat of propulsion. Now that’s cinema. Read Empire's review of Goodfellas, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 9) Raiders Of The Lost Ark (1981) Raiders Of The Lost Ark Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Harrison Ford, Karen Allen, Paul Freeman, John Rhys-Davies In '81, it must have sounded like the ultimate pitch: the creator of Star Wars teams up with the director of Jaws to make a rip-roaring, Bond-style adventure starring the guy who played Han Solo, in which the bad guys are the evillest ever (the Nazis) and the MacGuffin is a big, gold box which unleashes the power of God. It still sounds like the ultimate pitch. Read Empire's review of Raiders Of The Lost Ark, streaming now on Disney+. Read why it's the best Indiana Jones film here. 8) Avengers: Infinity War (2018) Avengers: Infinity War Directors: Anthony Russo, Joe Russo Starring: Chris Evans, Robert Downey Jr., Mark Ruffalo, Scarlett Johansson, Chadwick Boseman, Chris Hemsworth, Sebastian Stan, Josh Brolin It was the biggest crossover event in cinematic history, and the biggest cliffhanger we never saw coming. After ten years and eighteen movies, Marvel took superhero filmmaking to a new level when they united all of Earth's mightiest heroes (and several more) against The Mad Titan himself – and incredibly, devastatingly, they lost. Infinity War crashed much-loved characters into each other's orbits, flitting between planets at breakneck speed as the Avengers desperately tried to stop Thanos from clicking his fingers and wiping out half the universe. Spectacular action, punch-the-air moments and big-scale battles are perfectly balanced, as all things should be, with hilarious interplays and aching emotion. Cinema doesn't get much bigger, or better, than this. Read Empire's review of Avengers: Infinity War, streaming now on Disney+. 7) Pulp Fiction (1994) Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994) Director: Quentin Tarantino Starring: Samuel L. Jackson, John Travolta, Uma Thurman, Bruce Willis After Reservoir Dogs announced Tarantino as a blistering new voice in American indie cinema, the filmmaker took everything that made his debut great and expanded on it. Across a set of interweaving tales, a host of hitmen, armed robbers, fixers and an ageing boxer find themselves entangled in stories of death, drugs, and lucky escapes in '90s LA – all interspersed with self-aware conversations on pop culture, religion, and the nature of crime itself. It's about everything and nothing at once, an exercise in pure style but with substance to match, and dialogue so memorable that entire chunks have entered the cultural consciousness at large. Pulp Fiction embodies everything that made early '90s independent cinema (and Tarantino himself) so exciting and fresh – playful and unexpected, steeped in genre knowledge, the coolest images set to the coolest soundtrack. And with truly iconic performances from John Travolta, Samuel L. Jackson, Uma Thurman, Harvey Keitel, Bruce Willis and more, the whole thing is an embarrassment of cinematic riches. Somehow both of its time and entirely timeless, Pulp Fiction just never gets old. Read Empire's review of Pulp Fiction, streaming on NOW Cinema, Sky Go, Netflix and Paramount+. 6) Jaws (1975) Jaws Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Roy Scheider, Robert Shaw, Richard Dreyfuss The impact of Jaws simply cannot be overstated. It created the notion of the summer blockbuster. It made millions feel it wasn’t safe to go back in the water. And, for all the clear potential of his early work, it well and truly put Spielberg on the map. It was, famously, nightmarish to shoot — waterlogged, behind schedule, over budget, and with a mechanical shark that kept breaking. But for all that churn beneath the surface, what the audience sees is effortless brilliance — a tense, beautifully-shot shark-attack thriller with deeply-layered characters, outstanding dialogue, and heart-stopping moments forever burned in the cultural landscape. Roy Scheider is utterly believable as vulnerable everyman police chief Martin Brody, forced to face the reality of a murderous shark on the shores of Amity Island, teaming up with Richard Dreyfuss’ preppy marine biologist Hooper and Robert Shaw’s salty sea-dog Quint to blow it to bits. Their chemistry steers the entire ship — sure, the scary set-pieces are outstanding, but so too is Quint’s haunting USS Indianapolis monologue. But the real star here isn’t them, or even Bruce the shark — it’s Spielberg himself. The eerie shark POV shots. The mind-bending dolly zooms. The head popping out of the boat. His work here is a pure display of cinematic mastery from first minute to last — the head, the tail, the whole damn thing. Read Empire's review of Jaws, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. 5) The Shawshank Redemption (1994) The Shawshank Redemption Director: Frank Darabont Starring: Tim Robbins, Morgan Freeman, William Sadler The warm, leathery embrace of Morgan Freeman's narration... The reassuringly Gary Cooper-ish rumple of Tim Robbins' face... Odd that a movie which features such harshness and tragedy should remain a feel-good perennial — even odder when you consider it was a box-office flop on release. Few directorial debuts are so deftly constructed; no surprise, then, that Frank Darabont has yet to top it. Read Empire's review of The Shawshank Redemption, streaming now on BBC iPlayer. 4) The Dark Knight (2008) The Dark Knight Director: Christopher Nolan Starring: Christian Bale, Heath Ledger, Aaron Eckhart, Maggie Gyllenhaal, Gary Oldman And away… we… go! After constructing a whole new Gotham in Batman Begins, Christopher Nolan introduced the clown intent on tearing the whole thing down. Despite being a Batman movie (albeit the first ever not to have 'Batman' in the title), The Dark Knight is absolutely The Joker's show – the late, great Heath Ledger (an initially controversial choice) putting in a visceral, transformative, truly terrifying performance as the Clown Prince Of… not exactly Crime, but pure, unadulterated Chaos. Less than a decade after 9/11, Nolan re-conceived Batman's greatest foe as an unpredictable terrorist intent on turning the people of Gotham against each other – his actions intended to spark mass discord pulled off in jaw-dropping set-pieces. For all the spectacle, this is a very different blockbuster from the off – the genius opening clown-mask bank heist is the film in miniature, an ambitious crime saga clad in superhero trappings, daring and ruthless and full of surprises. The Dark Knight is full-strength, no-holds-barred, firing-on-all cylinders Nolan, and not just an all-time great comic book movie, but an all-time great movie period — as the movie's rightful high ranking here attests. Read Empire's review of The Dark Knight, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. See where it came in our Batman movie ranking. 3) The Godfather (1972) The Godfather Director: Francis Ford Coppola Starring: Marlon Brando, Al Pacino, James Caan, John Cazale, Talia Shire Stanley Kubrick once described Francis Ford Coppola's adaptation of Mario Puzo's novel as the best film ever made – though having previously topped this list, this time it falls to bronze position. At once an arthouse drama and a commercial blockbuster, The Godfather marked the dawn of the age of the mega-movie. An icon of the gangster genre, it’s imprinted in popular culture – "Luca Brasi sleeps with the fishes", the horse's head in the bed – but the first instalment of Brando's cotton-cheeked patriarch's fight for power is so much more than those moments. With performances, style and substance to savour, it managed to both smash box office records and live on as a staple of cinematic canon. Read Empire's review of The Godfather, streaming now on Paramount+. 2) Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back (1980) Darth Vader in Star Wars: Episode V - The Empire Strikes Back Director: Irvin Kershner Starring: Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Billy Dee Williams, David Prowse If Star Wars gave us a whole new cinematic galaxy, Empire made that galaxy feel so much larger, deeper, and richer. Bolstered by the original's success, George Lucas shot for the moon a second time around, teaming up with director Irvin Kershner to tell the story of Luke training under Master Yoda, Han and Leia heading to Cloud City, and Darth Vader dropping the daddy of all twists. Episode V ramped up the scope with more astonishing model work, dizzying dogfights, the snowy Hoth battle, and a ferocious lightsaber duel between Luke and Vader. It is, simply, bigger and better than the original Star Wars, influential in its own right with its downer-ending and game-changing familial revelations. We love it. You know. Read Empire's review of The Empire Strikes Back, streaming now on Disney+. 1) The Lord Of The Rings: The Fellowship Of The Ring (2001) The Lord Of The Rings: The Fellowship Of The Ring Director: Peter Jackson Starring: Elijah Wood, Sean Astin, Ian McKellen, Viggo Mortensen, Orlando Bloom, Sean Bean, Cate Blanchett, Liv Tyler A wizard is never late. Nor is he early. He arrives precisely when he... well, you know the rest. It might have taken 20 years for Peter Jackson's plucky fantasy to clamber, Mount-Doom-style, to the very pinnacle of our greatest-movies pantheon. But here it is, brighter and more resplendent than ever. The Fellowship Of The Ring contains so much movie. Even at the halfway point, as the characters take a breather to bicker in Rivendell, you already feel sated, like you've experienced more thrills, more suspense, more jollity and ethereal beauty than a regular film could possibly muster up. But Jackson is only getting started. Onwards his adventure hustles, to the bravura dungeoneering of Khazad-dum, to the sinisterly serene glades of Lothlorien, to the final requiem for flawed Boromir amidst autumnal leaves. As Fellowship thrums to its conclusion, finally applying the brakes with a last swell of Howard Shore's heavenly score, you're left feeling euphoric, bereft and hopeful, all at the same time. Lord Of The Rings: The Fellowship Of The Ring The Two Towers has the coolest battle. The Return Of The King boasts the most batshit, operatic spectacle. But Fellowship remains the most perfect of the three, matching every genius action beat with a soul-stirring emotional one, as its Middle-earth-traversing gang swells in size in the first act, then dwindles in the third. This oddball suicide squad has so much warmth and wit, they're not just believable as friends of each other — they've come to feel like they're our pals too. An ornately detailed masterwork with a huge, pulsing heart, it's just the right film for our times — full of craft, conviction and a belief that trudging forward, step by step, in dark days is the bravest act of all. Its ultimate heroes aren't the strongest, or those with the best one-liners, but the ones who just keep going. And so Fellowship endures: a miracle of storytelling, a feat of filmmaking and still the gold standard for cinematic experiences. Right, now that's decided, who's up for a second breakfast? Read Empire's review of The Lord Of The Rings: The Fellowship Of The Ring, streaming on NOW Cinema and Sky Go. READ MORE: The 50 Best Horror Movies Of The 21st Century READ MORE: The 50 Best Animated Movies Just so you know, we may receive a commission or other compensation from the links on this website - read why you should trust us The 100 Greatest Movies Of The 21st Century It’s the beginning of a new year and a whole new decade – meaning we’re now,... Empire The 20 Best Murder-Mystery Movies Our main suspects for the very best in the whodunnit genre. Read now at Empire. Empire Black Horse Refund Checker - Lookup Your Name Up To £4,500* Per Vehicle thepcpguys.co.uk | Sponsored The Best Men's Shoes for Walking and Standing All Day. Comfy Men Shoes | Sponsored Discreet, Rechargeable Hearing Aids – Tested & Fitted at Home Experience a free home hearing test conducted by expert audiologists & discover discreet, rechargeable hearing aids designed for comfort & clearer conversations. Enjoy professional care without leaving home - book your free hearing test today. OutsideClinic | Sponsored The 20 Best Leonardo DiCaprio Movies From Titanic to The Departed to Killers Of The Flower Moon, join us as we rank the 20 best Leonardo DiCaprio movies. Read more at Empire. Empire We Live In Time Florence Pugh and Andrew Garfield are a couple rocked by a cancer diagnosis in this romantic drama. Read the Empire review. Empire Black Horse Is Issuing Refunds To The Public - Lookup Your Name Up To £4,500* Per Vehicle thepcpguys.co.uk | Sponsored It's Hard To Believe But Every Guy Had A Crush On Her In The 90s Health Trition | Sponsored Not a typical dating platform Share your feelings and emotions with someone. Wingtalks | Sponsored Physiotherapist: "This Is The Worst Enemy of Arthritis" Vital Health Findings | Sponsored Everyone Over 50 Needs These Self Adjusting Glasses for Near & Far Vision These sold out self-adjusting glasses will do wonders for your eyesight! OptiTrends | Sponsored This game will kill your time! Only 3% can pass Level 8. Can you beat the pirates? Unlock 500+ Brilliant Puzzle Levels! Find Hidden Treasure on the Island. Click Now & Start Your Adventure! Stormshot | Sponsored Convenient Home Hearing Tests & Advanced Hearing Aids Experience a free home hearing test conducted by expert audiologists & discover discreet, rechargeable hearing aids designed for comfort & clearer conversations. Enjoy professional care without leaving home - book your free hearing test today. OutsideClinic | Sponsored Hardly anyone can pass this eye test! Can you? Free Color Test | Sponsored Co-Founder of Google Brain, Andrew Ng, Recommends: 5 Books For Turning Your Life Around Andrew Ng, computer scientist and technology entrepreneur focusing on artificial intelligence, shares the five books he thinks will change your life. Blinkist: Andrew Ng's Reading List | Sponsored The 20 Best Zombie Movies Of All Time From Romero to Rodriguez, Empire counts down the greatest ever zombie films. Empire The 10 Best Julia Roberts Movie And TV Roles From Pretty Woman to Notting Hill and Erin Brockovich, Empire counts down the greatest Julia Roberts roles. Empire Stuck in Depression? A Brain Switch Helps Reset Your Mood A Breakthrough Discovery is a Life-Changer for Thousands. Nurosym | Sponsored Own A Barrel of Whisky With Average Annual Returns of 10.15%* Whisky casks are a unique and tax-efficient** investment avenue *Average Client Return in 2023 Whisky Investors | Sponsored Homeowners should go solar before the end of 2024 if their house has this The Eco Experts Solar Quotes | Sponsored The Best Sci-Fi Movies Of All Time Empire's list of the 50 greatest science fiction movies of all time, from 2001: A Space Odyssey and The Matrix to Blade Runner. Empire The 20 Best Vampire Movies From Nosferatu, to Twilight, and everything in between. Read Empire's list now. Empire Own A Cask Of Whisky With Average Annual Returns of 9.06% Download Our Free Guide To Supercharge Your Investment Strategy. Whisky Partners | Sponsored This game is so realistic that it's worth just watching! Raid Shadow Legends | Sponsored Kindle Lovers Are Asking: Why Didn't I Find Out About This Website Sooner? Learn the secret to saving on bestselling ebooks BookBub | Sponsored The 100 Greatest Movies Of The 21st Century It’s the beginning of a new year and a whole new decade – meaning we’re now,... Empire The 20 Best Murder-Mystery Movies Our main suspects for the very best in the whodunnit genre. Read now at Empire. Empire Black Horse Refund Checker - Lookup Your Name Up To £4,500* Per Vehicle thepcpguys.co.uk | Sponsored It's Hard To Believe But Every Guy Had A Crush On Her In The 90s Health Trition | Sponsored Physiotherapist: "This Is The Worst Enemy of Arthritis" Vital Health Findings | Sponsored The 20 Best Leonardo DiCaprio Movies From Titanic to The Departed to Killers Of The Flower Moon, join us as we rank the 20 best Leonardo DiCaprio movies. Read more at Empire. Empire The 20 Best Zombie Movies Of All Time From Romero to Rodriguez, Empire counts down the greatest ever zombie films. Empire Black Horse Is Issuing Refunds To The Public - Lookup Your Name Up To £4,500* Per Vehicle thepcpguys.co.uk | Sponsored Not a typical dating platform Share your feelings and emotions with someone. Wingtalks | Sponsored Discreet, Rechargeable Hearing Aids – Tested & Fitted at Home Experience a free home hearing test conducted by expert audiologists & discover discreet, rechargeable hearing aids designed for comfort & clearer conversations. Enjoy professional care without leaving home - book your free hearing test today. OutsideClinic | Sponsored The Best Sci-Fi Movies Of All Time Empire's list of the 50 greatest science fiction movies of all time, from 2001: A Space Odyssey and The Matrix to Blade Runner. Empire The 10 Best Julia Roberts Movie And TV Roles From Pretty Woman to Notting Hill and Erin Brockovich, Empire counts down the greatest Julia Roberts roles. Empire Everyone Over 50 Needs These Self Adjusting Glasses for Near & Far Vision These sold out self-adjusting glasses will do wonders for your eyesight! OptiTrends | Sponsored Hardly anyone can pass this eye test! Can you? Free Color Test | Sponsored This game will kill your time! Only 3% can pass Level 8. Can you beat the pirates? Unlock 500+ Brilliant Puzzle Levels! Find Hidden Treasure on the Island. Click Now & Start Your Adventure! Stormshot | Sponsored The 20 Best Vampire Movies From Nosferatu, to Twilight, and everything in between. Read Empire's list now. Empire The Best TV Shows Of 2024 So Far From Baby Reindeer to The Bear, Shogun to Supacell, Empire counts down the best shows of the year so far. Empire Unsold 10x10 Storage Units Are Selling For Almost Nothing! Check! Storage Units | Search Ads | Sponsored Stuck in Depression? A Brain Switch Helps Reset Your Mood A Breakthrough Discovery is a Life-Changer for Thousands. Nurosym | Sponsored Homeowners should go solar before the end of 2024 if their house has this The Eco Experts Solar Quotes | Sponsored The Best Films Of 2023 Empire counts down the best movies of 2023 – from Past Lives, to Spider-Man: Across The Spider-Verse, to Oppenheimer and Barbie. Empire Matt Holness Will Be The Reprisalizer If you, like us, were left wondering just what Garth Marenghi co-creator... Empire The Average IQ in the UK is 100. Take this IQ test and check if your IQ is higher Check how smart are you. Answer 22 questions and find out what is your IQ. WW IQ Test | Sponsored Here Are 47 of the Coolest Gifts for 2024 UK: 47+ surprisingly cool gadgets that are going to sell out this month, all at ridiculous discounts! CoolGadgetGeek | Sponsored Co-Founder of Google Brain, Andrew Ng, Recommends: 5 Books For Turning Your Life Around Andrew Ng, computer scientist and technology entrepreneur focusing on artificial intelligence, shares the five books he thinks will change your life. Blinkist: Andrew Ng's Reading List | Sponsored The 25 Best Anime Movies Want to know where to start with Anime? Empire's here to help. From Spirited Away and Akira, to Ghost In The Shell and Grave Of The Fireflies, we count down the greatest anime movies of all time. Empire The 10 Best Werewolf Movies Get your silver bullets ready and join Empire as we prowl through the greatest lycanthrope movies of all time. Read the full list here. Empire Convenient Home Hearing Tests & Advanced Hearing Aids Experience a free home hearing test conducted by expert audiologists & discover discreet, rechargeable hearing aids designed for comfort & clearer conversations. Enjoy professional care without leaving home - book your free hearing test today. OutsideClinic | Sponsored Cardiologist Begs Brits To Throw Out This 1 Food Immediately New Energy Findings | Sponsored The Phenomenal Tesla Model Y Is Close To Perfection (Take A Look) Discover Discounts & Savings on The New Tesla Model Y With These Top Searches. FrequentSearches | Search Ads | Sponsored The 25 Best Coming-Of-Age Movies Read Empire's list of the greatest films documenting the transition to adulthood. Empire Better Man A drama of Robbie Williams' life – where he's played by a CG chimp. Read the Empire review here. Empire How A Brain Switch Can Almost Instantly Relieve Stress A Breakthrough Discovery is a Life-Changer for Thousands. Nurosym | Sponsored Kindle Lovers Are Asking: Why Didn't I Find Out About This Website Sooner? Learn the secret to saving on bestselling ebooks BookBub | Sponsored The Glasses Invention Making Opticians Nervous in Salford! New invention helps seniors see clearly at any distance! OptiTrends | Sponsored Nobody 2 Has Bob Odenkirk ‘Back At It In Full Throttle’ In Timo Tjahjanto’s Sequel Director Timo Tjahjanto exclusively tells Empire about the return of Bob Odenkirk's assassin Hutch. Empire Captain America: Brave New World Will Have An Adamantium Connection To The X-Men And Eternals Anthony Mackie's big screen debut as Marvel's Star-Spangled Man will bring Celestial Tiamut back into the MCU mix as the source of the rare metal. Empire Legal Info Privacy Policy Your Ad Choices Subscription Complaints Complaints Subscribe to Empire API About Us Speak Up Privacy Settings Facebook Twitter Pinterest © 1962-2025 Bauer Media Group Bauer Consumer Media Ltd, Company number 01176085; Bauer Radio Limited, Company number: 1394141; Registered office: Media House, Peterborough Business Park, Lynch Wood, Peterborough PE2 6EA and H Bauer Publishing, Company number: LP003328; Registered office: The Lantern, 75 Hampstead Road, London NW1 2PL All registered in England and Wales. VAT no 918 5617 01 H Bauer Publishing are authorised and regulated for credit broking by the FCA (Ref No: 845898) Gladiator II Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Gladiator II Theatrical release poster Directed by Ridley Scott Screenplay by David Scarpa Story by Peter Craig David Scarpa Based on Characters by David Franzoni Produced by Ridley Scott Michael Pruss Douglas Wick Lucy Fisher David Franzoni Starring Paul Mescal Pedro Pascal Joseph Quinn Fred Hechinger Lior Raz Derek Jacobi Denzel Washington Connie Nielsen Cinematography John Mathieson Edited by Claire Simpson Sam Restivo Music by Harry Gregson-Williams Production companies Scott Free Productions Lucy Fisher/Douglas Wick Productions Distributed by Paramount Pictures Release dates October 30, 2024 (Sydney) November 15, 2024 (United Kingdom) November 22, 2024 (United States) Running time 148 minutes[1] Countries United Kingdom United States Language English Budget $310 million[2] $210 million (net cost)[3][4] Box office $435.2 million[5][6] Gladiator II is a 2024 historical epic film directed and produced by Ridley Scott that serves as a sequel to Gladiator (2000). Written by David Scarpa based on a story he wrote with Peter Craig, the film was produced by Scott Free Productions and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It stars Paul Mescal, Pedro Pascal, Joseph Quinn, Fred Hechinger, Lior Raz, Derek Jacobi, Connie Nielsen, and Denzel Washington.[7] Jacobi and Nielsen reprise their roles from the first film, with Mescal replacing Spencer Treat Clark. Mescal portrays Lucius Verus Aurelius, the exiled Prince of Rome, who becomes a prisoner of war and fights as a gladiator for Macrinus, a former slave who plots to overthrow the twin emperors Geta and Caracalla. A sequel to Gladiator was discussed as early as June 2001, with David Franzoni and John Logan set to return as screenwriters. Development was halted when DreamWorks Pictures was sold to Paramount in 2006. The film was finally announced in 2018, and Mescal was cast in the lead role in January 2023, with a script by Scarpa. Filming took place between June 2023 and January 2024, with a five-month delay due to the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes. Gladiator II premiered in Sydney, Australia, on October 30, 2024. It was released in the United Kingdom on November 15 and in the United States on November 22. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its performances, Scott's direction, set design, and action, while criticism was directed at the emotional tone, similarity to its predecessor, and historical inaccuracies. It has grossed $435.2 million worldwide.[8] It was named one of the top ten films of 2024 by the National Board of Review and received two nominations at the 82nd Golden Globe Awards: Cinematic and Box Office Achievement and Best Supporting Actor for Washington. Plot Sixteen years after Marcus Aurelius's death,[a] Rome is ruled by the corrupt twin emperors Geta and Caracalla. In the North African kingdom of Numidia, the refugee Hanno lives with his wife Arishat. The Roman army led by General Acacius invades and conquers the kingdom, killing Arishat and enslaving Hanno and the other survivors. The slaves are taken to Ostia, where the Romans pit them against baboons to advertise them as potential gladiators. Hanno savagely kills two baboons, impressing the stable master Macrinus, who promises Hanno an opportunity to kill Acacius if he wins enough fights in Rome. Acacius returns to Rome as a war hero; Geta and Caracalla arrange gladiatorial games in the Colosseum to celebrate his victory. Disillusioned with war, Acacius requests a break with his wife Lucilla, the daughter of Aurelius, but the emperors refuse and plot to conquer Persia and India. Senator Thraex throws a party for the emperors and arranges a gladiatorial duel as entertainment. After Hanno wins, he recites a verse from Virgil's Aeneid, revealing his Roman education to the emperors and raising Macrinus's suspicion. Acacius and Lucilla conspire with Thraex and Senator Gracchus to overthrow the emperors and restore the Roman Republic. Hanno emulates the late legendary gladiator Maximus in the Colosseum to win fights. Lucilla realizes that Hanno is her son, Lucius Verus, whom she sent away as a child to protect him from rivals for the throne. Lucilla visits Lucius and tries to reconnect with him, but he angrily rebuffs her. He resents being forced to flee Rome and is upset that her new husband caused Arishat's death. Lucilla reveals to Lucius that he is Maximus's son and tells him to use his father's strength to survive. During a naumachia in the Colosseum, Lucius leads the gladiators to victory and fires a crossbow at the spectating Acacius but fails to kill him. Ravi, the gladiators' physician, befriends Lucius and shows him the shrine to Maximus, which includes Maximus's sword and armor. Lucilla and Acacius conspire to free Lucius as part of their plot to dethrone the emperors. However, Thraex, who owes Macrinus money, informs him of the conspiracy; Lucilla and Acacius are arrested for treason. Macrinus advises the emperors to have Acacius killed in the Colosseum and arranges for Lucius to fight him. After a brief fight, Acacius surrenders to Lucius and professes his love and respect for Lucilla and Maximus. Lucius refuses to execute Acacius but the Praetorian Guard execute him at the emperors' command, prompting the people to riot. When Macrinus questions Lucius's refusal to kill Acacius, Lucius argues that Rome can be a better place. Macrinus manipulates Caracalla into believing that Geta will blame him for the riot; Caracalla kills Geta with Macrinus's help. Lucilla and Lucius reconcile; she gives him her father's ring, which also belonged to Maximus and Acacius. Increasingly delusional, Caracalla names his pet monkey as a consul alongside Macrinus. Macrinus persuades the Senate that he can restore order and assumes control of the Praetorians. He reveals to Lucilla that he was a slave under Aurelius's rule and vows to avenge himself by becoming emperor. Macrinus convinces Caracalla to have Lucilla executed in the Colosseum, with only Lucius to defend her, hoping their deaths will trigger another riot that the Senate will defuse by executing Caracalla. Lucius sends Ravi with the ring to request military aid from Acacius's legions outside Rome. Lucilla is brought into the Colosseum with the senators whom she conspired with, while Lucius rallies the gladiators to revolt against their enslavers. Armed with Maximus's sword and armor, he leads the gladiators to defend Lucilla from execution. Gracchus is killed in the onslaught, while Macrinus kills Caracalla before fatally shooting Lucilla with an arrow. Macrinus flees the rioting city with Lucius in pursuit. Acacius's legions and Macrinus's Praetorians meet outside Rome. To stop a battle, Lucius and Macrinus duel. Although Macrinus nearly kills Lucius, Lucius kills Macrinus and reveals his identity as the imperial heir, convincing both armies to build a united Rome with him. Later, Lucius mourns his parents in the Colosseum. Cast Paul Mescal as Lucius Verus Aurelius / "Hanno": The grandson of the former emperor Marcus Aurelius and son of Maximus Decimus Meridius, the protagonist of the first film.[9] Following his father's death, Lucius was sent away from Rome as a child by his mother, Lucilla, to protect him from assassins. They have not met in around 15 years.[10] Lucius lives with his wife in Numidia but is taken prisoner by the Roman army after they invade his home and kill his wife. He is sold into slavery to become a gladiator in the Colosseum. He seeks revenge against the Romans and their general, Acacius. Alfie Tempest portrays a young Lucius, with Spencer Treat Clark's likeness from the original film superimposed over his own. Pedro Pascal as General Acacius: A general of the Roman army who trained under Maximus, and Lucilla's husband. Although he lives a luxurious lifestyle in Rome, he spends most of his time away on military campaigns for the emperors. He leads an army to take over Numidia and invades Lucius's home, but is disillusioned by war and does not want to send more men to die for the emperors.[11] Acacius conspires with Lucilla to overthrow the emperors but is arrested and reduced to fighting as a gladiator in the Colosseum. According to Pascal, he is "a very, very good general, which can mean a very good killer", serving as a symbol to Lucius of everything he hates.[12] Connie Nielsen as Lucilla: Lucius's mother, Maximus's former lover, and Aurelius's daughter. She sent Lucius away from Rome after Maximus's death to protect him from rivals for the imperial throne. Following Maximus's death, she marries Acacius. She watches Lucius fight in the Colosseum but initially does not recognize him as her son.[12] Due to her popularity among the people of Rome, she is feared and exploited by those in power, such as the emperors.[13] Nielsen reprises her role from the original film.[12] Denzel Washington as Macrinus (loosely inspired by the historical figure Marcus Opellius Macrinus[14][15]): A former slave who plans to control Rome.[11] He keeps a stable of gladiators and mentors Lucius. He also works as an arms dealer, providing weapons, food, and oil to the Roman armies in Europe. Director Ridley Scott described him as "pretty fucking cruel" to the arena fighters,[12] with Washington adding that he "wants to be Emperor and he's willing to do anything to get there".[16] Scott also noted that Macrinus has a "twinkle" of bisexuality, describing him as a gangster who started as a prisoner of war, became a gladiator, and earned his freedom.[17] Joseph Quinn as Emperor Geta: The co-emperor of Rome alongside his biological older brother, Caracalla. Just like his older brother, Geta was a sadistic, egotistical ruler who ruled Rome and all of the Colosseum's entertainment. Despite Scott described the pair as "damaged goods from birth" who are "almost a replay of Romulus and Remus",[12] Geta was somewhat saner and more logical of two, and also more mature and calmer than his older brother. Other inspirations being Beavis and Butt-Head from the MTV adult cartoon of the same name.[18]Careful not to copy Joaquin Phoenix's performance as Commodus from the original film, Quinn took inspiration from Philip Seymour Hoffman's Owen Davian from Mission: Impossible III (2006) and Gary Oldman's Jean-Baptiste Emanuel Zorg from The Fifth Element (1997) for playing his character.[19] One inspiration for Geta's look was John Lydon.[18] Fred Hechinger as Emperor Caracalla: The co-emperor of Rome alongside his biological younger brother, Geta. He has a pet monkey and is less stable than his younger brother due to cognitive erosion in his brain.[20] Hechinger discussed with Scott about finding inspirations to build Caracalla's look from Sid Vicious,[21] with Caracalla's pet monkey serving as another inspiration for the character's "crazed behavior".[20] Lior Raz as Viggo: The trainer of gladiators for Macrinus. A former gladiator, Viggo is a "tough guy" who escorts the gladiators to their fights.[22] Derek Jacobi as Senator Gracchus: A member of the Roman Senate who opposes the growing corruption of the Imperial Court. Jacobi reprises his role from the original film.[13] Peter Mensah as Jugurtha: A black Numidian chieftain who mentored Lucius after the latter was exiled from Rome, with whom he is later enslaved and forced to become a gladiator.[23] Matt Lucas as the Master of Ceremonies: The Colosseum's public address announcer. Alexander Karim as Ravi: A former gladiator from India who earned his freedom and then chose to serve as a doctor to wounded combatants.[23] Tim McInnerny as Senator Thraex: A gambling-addicted, corrupt member of the Roman Senate who owes Macrinus a tremendous amount of money. Richard McCabe as Quaestor. Rory McCann as Tegula: The leader of the Praetorian Guard. Yuval Gonen as Arishat: Lucius's wife, a skilled archer who is killed during the Roman invasion of their home.[23] Alec Utgoff as Darius: Acacius's second-in-command, whom Acacius recruits to mount a coup against the corrupt emperors. Yann Gael as Bostar. Although Macrinus states his bisexuality in the film, a scene involving Macrinus kissing another man was deleted from the film.[24] However, this was later disputed by Scott.[25] Production Development In June 2001, developments for a Gladiator (2000) follow-up began for either a prequel or sequel, with David Franzoni in early negotiations to once again serve as screenwriter.[26] Ridley Scott's logic to make a sequel was that, even though Maximus Decimus Meridius died at the end of the original film, what happened to Lucius Verus was left ambiguous, considering the questions about his whereabouts perfect for a second film.[17] The following year, a sequel was announced to be moving forward with John Logan serving as screenwriter. The plot, set 15 years later, included the Praetorian Guards ruling Rome, and an older Lucius—the son of Lucilla in Gladiator—searching for the truth about his biological father. Franzoni signed on as producer, alongside Douglas Wick and Walter Parkes.[27] In December 2002, the film's plot was announced to include prequel events regarding the parentage of Lucius, as well as sequel events depicting the resurrection of Maximus, the main character of the original film. The producers and Russell Crowe, who portrayed Maximus, collaboratively and extensively researched ancient Roman beliefs regarding the afterlife.[28] Although Crowe and Scott had discussed how to bring the former back by having his character resurrect, Scott concluded that Crowe would have to return either as Maximus' double or play another character.[17] By September 2003, Scott announced that the script was completed, while confirming that the story would primarily center on Lucius.[29] Ridley Scott returned to direct Gladiator II two decades after the original. In May 2006, Scott stated that DreamWorks Pictures had wanted to make the sequel, but there were differing ideas for the story. Crowe had favoured a fantasy element in bringing Maximus back to life, while the studio were basing the film on Lucius as the son of Maximus and Lucilla. Scott also discussed the necessity of a more complex script with the corruption of Rome in the potential sequel.[30] During this time, Nick Cave was commissioned to write a new draft of the script. It was later revealed to be written under the working title of "Christ Killer". Cave described the plot as a "deities vs. deity vs. humanity" story. The story involved Maximus in purgatory, who is resurrected as an immortal warrior for the Roman gods. Maximus is sent back to Earth and tasked with ending Christianity by killing Jesus and his disciples, as Christianity was draining the power of the ancient Pagan gods. During his mission, Maximus is tricked into murdering his own son. Cursed to live forever, Maximus fights in the Crusades, World War II, and the Vietnam War; with the ending revealing that in the present-day, the character now works at the Pentagon. The script was rejected and scrapped after Steven Spielberg, who had consulted on the original film, told Scott it wasn't going to work, especially as Cave had written something "too grand" due to his theatre work.[31][32][33][17] After experiencing financial difficulties in the 2000s, DreamWorks Pictures—including the rights to Gladiator and the rest of the pre-2006 live-action film library—was sold to Paramount Pictures in 2006 and development on the sequel was halted.[34] Over the years, other attempts on a sequel script were made, but Scott felt that many writers "were afraid to take it on".[20] He also said that he and everyone involved in the original film were busy so no one thought about making a sequel, but as time passed, he noticed how well Gladiator aged to the point of seemingly having "taken a life of its own" that it made him feel that he owed the audience a continuation to that story.[20] Scott became determined to not let go of the project, deciding to do it for both creative and financial reasons if a good idea came up.[17] In March 2017, Scott revealed that the difficulties of reintroducing Maximus had been resolved. The filmmaker expressed enthusiasm for the future of the project, while discussions with Crowe to reprise his role were ongoing.[35] Paramount Pictures CEO Brian Robbins worked with Ridley Scott on Gladiator II.[36] In November 2018, it was announced that Paramount was greenlighting the development of a sequel. Scott was in early negotiations to once again serve as director, with a script written by Peter Craig. Scott would also serve as producer alongside Douglas Wick, Lucy Fisher, Walter Parkes, and Laurie MacDonald, with the project being a joint-venture production between Paramount, Scott Free Productions, Red Wagon Entertainment, and Parkes+MacDonald Image Nation.[37] In June 2019, the producers revealed that the script took place 25 to 30 years after the first film.[38] The plot was reported to center around Lucius.[39] In April 2021, Chris Hemsworth approached Crowe with a proposal to become involved with the project, with the intention to co-produce the film. While working together on the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Thor: Love and Thunder (2022), the two actors shared additional ideas for the film.[40] By September 2021, Scott stated that the script was once again being worked on with his intention being to direct the sequel upon the completion of production on Napoleon (2023).[41] In November, it was revealed that David Scarpa, who worked with Scott on Napoleon, was rewriting the script.[42] Scott stated in a 2023 interview that they had struggled for 10 months to write the script four years previously, until they revisited the idea of Lucius as the "survivor" of the original film.[43] According to Scott, the premise for the sequel began with the emperors Caracalla and Geta. He said, "After Commodus's death, there was a scramble for the chair, and out of that eventually came a man who became the father of the two princes... One of them was just this side of being dysfunctional, a lunatic. The other one tried to control his brother. So that state of constant disagreement and fluctuating personalities was where we began."[44] Originally greenlit with a production budget of $165 million, the cost of the film increased to a reported $310 million by the time filming wrapped, though Paramount insisted the net cost did not exceed $250 million.[2] Additionally, Ridley Scott's desire to have a rhino battle in the original film, which went unrealized due to cost, was included in the sequel.[45][46][47][48] November 14, Deadline Hollywood reported the film's net budget to be $210 million[4] and November 24 stated the budget was $250 million.[3] The production received €46.7 million in film incentive rebates from Malta, setting a record for the largest rebate issued for a film production in the European Union.[49] Pre-production Irish actor Paul Mescal at the screening of The Lost Daughter at the 44th Mill Valley Film Festival on 16th October 2021. Pedro Pascal speaking at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con International in San Diego, California. Denzel Washington in 2018 Connie Nielsen speaking at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con International in San Diego, California. Sir Derek Jacobi - BFI Southbank - Sunday 13th November 2022 Joseph Quinn on the red carpet at the Big Screen Achievement Awards at the 2024 CinemaCon at The Colosseum Theater at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Fred Hechinger at the Sundance Film Festival in 2024 (Clockwise from top left) Gladiator II stars Paul Mescal, Pedro Pascal, Denzel Washington, Connie Nielsen, Fred Hechinger, Joseph Quinn, and Derek Jacobi In January 2023, Paul Mescal was cast in the film as the adult Lucius (originally portrayed by Spencer Treat Clark), while it was also reported that Arthur Max and Janty Yates, the production designer and costume designer of the original film, respectively, would also be returning to work on the sequel.[50] Scott was unaware of Mescal's fame until he watched his performance in the BBC Three/Hulu miniseries Normal People, which he came across in his need for a "bedtime story". Shortly after, the story for Gladiator II was completed, and Scott ultimately cast Mescal in the lead role after a brief Zoom call.[43][12][20] Austin Butler, Richard Madden and Miles Teller had also been considered for the lead role.[51] Mescal was chosen after Daria Cercek and Michael Ireland had seen his performance in the West End revival of A Streetcar Named Desire, claiming that the "ladies in the audience [had been] very vocal" when he had taken his shirt off.[52] Having seen the original film when he was 13 with his father, Mescal was invited for breakfast by Lucy Fisher and Douglas Wick, who informed him about the sequel's casting, proceeding to tell Scott about his physical capabilities due to playing Gaelic football in his youth while Scott found a striking resemblance to Richard Harris, who played Marcus Aurelius in the original film, so he opted to cast Mescal despite his newcomer status under the pretext he launched careers likewise for Sigourney Weaver and Brad Pitt when he cast them in his films Alien (1979) and Thelma & Louise (1991) respectively. To prepare for the role, Mescal didn't get in touch with Crowe to avoid audiences potentially thinking the film will define his career, trained physically, ate sweet potato and ground beef to put on 18 pounds of muscle and remembered Roman history he studied at school,[53] in addition to practice fighting choreography, horse training and sword fighting.[20] In March 2023, Barry Keoghan entered negotiations to join the cast in the role of Emperor Caracalla while Denzel Washington joined the cast.[54][55] Regarding Scott and his brother Tony as "great filmmakers" who never miss, Washington accepted the role out of interest to work with the inspirational Scott brothers again after their previous collaboration in American Gangster (2007).[16] Additionally, John Mathieson was set to return as cinematographer for the film.[56] Scott didn't conceive Macrinus with Washington in mind, but felt inspired to cast him after seeing Jean-Léon Gérôme's painting Moorish Bath, which depicted a black bearded man with a jeweled Dizzy Gillespie-like hat in orange and blue silk, inspiring the character's appearance, plus Washington's status as a method actor.[17] In April 2023, it was announced that Connie Nielsen and Djimon Hounsou would reprise their roles as Lucilla and Juba respectively, while Joseph Quinn was added to the cast as Emperor Geta.[57][58] In May 2023, Pedro Pascal, May Calamawy, Lior Raz, Derek Jacobi, Peter Mensah and Matt Lucas joined the cast of the film, with Fred Hechinger entering negotiations to play Caracalla after Keoghan had to drop out over scheduling conflicts with Saltburn (2023). Jacobi reprises his role as Senator Gracchus from the first film.[59][60][17] Similarly to Mescal, Pascal underwent intense gladiator training for his role, which he found challenging, but deemed the experience "the most exciting" of his career due to growing up with Scott's films.[20] In December, Hounsou announced that, despite initially being involved, he would not be returning for the sequel due to scheduling conflicts.[61] Filming Production was expected to begin in May 2023, with Ouarzazate, Morocco set as a filming location.[62] Set construction began in the city in April.[63] Filming began in June 2023 with additional filming locations planned for Malta, which stood-in for ancient Rome, and the United Kingdom over the following four months,[64][65] with few early sequences being shot at Morocco before flying to Malta to shoot the rest of the film. Mescal felt some nerves over shooting in the assembled Colosseum and shooting scenes with Washington.[53] Scott purposely took Mescal to the Colosseum set so he could familiarize himself with it, as Mescal hadn't done any big studio movies before.[17] An accident involving fire during filming on June 7 injured six crew members.[66] Filming was suspended in July due to the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes.[67] For a fight sequence, a rhinoceros was created via 3D printing controlled by radio remote, but filming the scene took two or three days and affected Mescal's physicality due to the temperature.[20] Filming resumed on December 4 in Malta,[68] and wrapped on January 17, 2024.[69] Filming also took place on the South Downs at Devil's Dyke, Sussex in June 2024.[70] Music Main article: Gladiator II (soundtrack) In January 2024, it was reported that Harry Gregson-Williams was composing the score for the film, taking over from Hans Zimmer and Lisa Gerrard who scored the first film.[71] Zimmer decided not to return because he did not want to repeat his work from the first film. In an interview with Curzon, he said that the film was "in really good hands" with Gregson-Williams, who had started his career as Zimmer's assistant.[72] Gregson-Williams wrote 100 minutes of original score for the film, and used some of Zimmer and Gerrard's musical cues from the first film.[73] Release Theatrical Gladiator II was released internationally, including the United Kingdom, on November 15, 2024, and later in the United States and Canada on November 22, by Paramount Pictures. Universal Pictures declined to co-finance the sequel or distribute it overseas as it had the first film, leaving only Paramount as the worldwide distributor.[74][75] In Australia, Italy and New Zealand, Gladiator II was released earlier on November 14,[76] following the film's world premiere in Sydney on October 30.[77] It was previously scheduled for a global release on November 22.[78] On July 1, 2024, it was announced that the film's release date would be shared with the first of the two-part film adaptation of the musical Wicked (from original film's co-distributor, Universal), whose date was moved from November 27 to avoid competition with Moana 2. This sparked speculation on whether pitting the two films together could lead to a scenario similar to the Barbenheimer phenomenon, which was a result of Barbie and Oppenheimer both being released on July 21, 2023.[79] On July 10, 2024, Mescal called the double release "Glicked" and voiced his support for the two films to be shown as a double feature, saying "It would be amazing 'cause I think the films couldn't be more polar opposites and it worked in that context previously. So, fingers crossed people come out and see both films on opening weekend".[80] Home media Gladiator II was released on digital download on December 24, 2024.[81] Rating Much like the original film, Gladiator II was given a R rating by the Motion Picture Association due to "strong bloody violence".[82] Unlike other past films of his, Scott has stated that Gladiator II will not receive a director's cut, as he has earned the right to have his final cut and removed some scenes during filming so he did not need to do so after finishing the film.[83] In Australia, two cuts of the film were released; the original, uncut MA15+ version (with the consumer advice "strong themes and violence"),[84] and the edited M-rated version ("animal cruelty, blood and gore, injury detail and violence") where blood spray is either trimmed down or removed.[85] The MA15+ rating was reinstated for the uncut home media release, with a revised consumer advice of "strong animal cruelty, violence and blood and gore".[86] Marketing Footage of the film screened at the CinemaCon 2024 in Las Vegas included scenes of Joseph Quinn as Geta dressed in a white toga and laurel-leaf crown dramatically plunging his thumb downward to note the fate of defeated gladiators, with Nielsen in the background.[65] In June of that year, Scott showcased an extended clip of the film featuring Denzel Washington, Paul Mescal, Pedro Pascal, Connie Nielsen, and Quinn.[87] A poster for the film was released on July 8, 2024, with a trailer released the following day.[88] The trailer would also reportedly be attached to the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Deadpool & Wolverine (2024), which was released on July 26, 2024.[89] Jennifer Ouellette of Ars Technica said the trailer indicated the film "promises to be just as much of a visual feast, as a new crop of power players (plus a couple of familiar faces) clash over the future of Rome".[90] Rather than using an orchestral score, the first trailer used "No Church in the Wild" by Jay-Z and Kanye West, which caused a backlash among film fans who said it was too modern of a song choice. Some justified this choice of music by citing the trailer for the first Gladiator which had used "Bawitdaba" by Kid Rock.[91] Screen Rant criticized how the second trailer spoiled the plot twist of Maximus being Lucius's father; while a common fan theory since the first film's release, Adam Bentz found it questionable to reveal in a trailer, as it could have been emotionally impactful for audiences like it was for Mescal when he found out his character's relationship with the original's protagonist.[92] On the first day of the 2024 NFL season, Paramount Pictures and Pepsi announced a campaign cross-promoting the film with the soft drink's sponsorship of the National Football League. A series of advertisements featured football stars Josh Allen, Derrick Henry, Justin Jefferson, and Travis Kelce as "Gridiron Gladiators", with Megan Thee Stallion appearing as Empress Megan.[93] On October 4, 2024, Japanese professional wrestling promotion New Japan Pro-Wrestling announced that the movie would sponsor that year's King of Pro-Wrestling event on October 14, which is slated to be the first since 2019.[94] On 1 November 2024, at Lucca Comics & Games 2024, to promote the film in Italian cinemas, Francesco Totti played a Roman centurion.[95][96] On November 11, 2024, Scuderia Ferrari drivers Charles Leclerc and Carlos Sainz Jr. attended the film's premiere in London as part of a collaboration with Paramount to promote the film, with the film's actors Paul Mescal, Connie Nielsen, and Fred Hechinger joining the team at the 2024 Las Vegas Grand Prix. The film's logo appeared on Ferrari's car for the Grand Prix itself.[97] Reception Box office As of December 30, 2024, Gladiator II has grossed $163.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $272.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $435.2 million.[6][5] In the United States and Canada, Gladiator II was projected to gross $60 million from 3,500 theaters in its opening weekend. It was released alongside Wicked, which was compared to 2023's Barbenheimer due to the films' contrasting target audiences.[98][99] The film made $22 million on its first day, including $6.5 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $55.5 million, finishing second behind Wicked. It marked the biggest opening weekend of Denzel Washington's career, surpassing American Gangster ($43.5 million in 2007), and also topped 8 Mile ($51.2 million in 2002) for the best opening for a November R-rated film.[3] In its second weekend the film made $30.7 million (and a total of $44 million over the five day Thanksgiving frame), dropping 44% and finishing third behind Moana 2 and Wicked.[100] In its third weekend the film made $12.5 million, remaining in third place.[101][102] The film was released in 63 territories one week ahead of its U.S. release and earned $87 million, the biggest opening weekend of Ridley Scott's career.[103] The second weekend had Gladiator II earning $106 million worldwide to finish second behind Wicked, with its $50.5 million overseas being slightly higher than the $50.2 million of its competitor.[104] Critical response Denzel Washington's performance as Macrinus received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 71% of 372 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The website's consensus reads: "Echoing its predecessor while upping the bloodsport and camp, Gladiator II is an action extravaganza that derives much of its strength and honor from Denzel Washington's scene-stealing performance."[105] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 64 out of 100, based on 62 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.[106] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale (down from the first film's A), while those surveyed by PostTrak gave it a 77% overall positive score, with 64% saying they would "definitely recommend" it.[3] Rotten Tomatoes reported that critics praised the action, performances, story, and visuals, but some argued that "plot-wise it's actually too similar to its predecessor".[107] Similarly, Metacritic stated that "most critics also feel that the film lives in the shadow of the more emotional and ultimately superior original."[108] Early reactions from the film's first screening at Paramount Studios in Los Angeles on October 18, 2024, were positive. Critics praised Scott's direction, the set pieces, battle sequences and Mescal's and Washington's performances, mentioning that Scott and Washington could be nominated for the Academy Awards, but a few felt the film lacked an "emotional punch" when compared to the original film.[109][110][111] Film critic Scott Menzel deemed the film Scott's best since The Martian (2015), a "big, bloody and bad ass action spectacle" that builds upon the original film's legacy.[109] Filmmaker Christopher Nolan named it one of his favorite films of 2024.[112] Historical accuracy The film's historical accuracy was also criticized. Some inaccuracies include the siege of a Numidian city by Roman triremes and the presence of sharks in a naumachia.[113] Numidia had already been part of the Roman Empire for about 250 years during the reign of Caracalla.[114] University of Chicago historian Shadi Bartsch described the film as "total Hollywood bullshit".[115] At the same time, baboons and a rhinoceros showcased on the Colosseum's arena are historically attested,[113] although there is no record of gladiators riding a rhinoceros.[116] Scholar Ray Laurence noted that "the ancient admiration of those who defy death as gladiators is nicely set out by the film" and that "the culture of gladiators is well presented with a doctor of gladiators".[113] Prior to the reenacted naval battle within the Colosseum, the announcer claims that the gladiators would be reenacting the Battle of Salamis between the Trojans and the Persians. In reality, the Battle of Salamis was fought in 480 BCE between the Greek city-states and the Persians, with no Trojan involvement.[117][original research?] The real-life Macrinus was a praetorian prefect of Berber descent from North Africa who became Roman emperor in 217 AD after conspiring against Caracalla and having him murdered.[118][119] He was not a slave to Marcus Aurelius and never trained gladiators.[120] In an interview with The Times Washington argued that there were definitely Black people in Rome at the time.[121] The emperors Geta and Caracalla were not twins. (Caracalla was about one year older than Geta.) Lucius Verus was Roman emperor from 161 AD until his death in 169 AD, alongside his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius.[122] The character of Lucilla is also based on a real historical figure. The real-life Lucilla was the daughter of Marcus Aurelius and the wife of Lucius Verus. One of their sons was named Lucius Verus.[116] Caracalla, after becoming sole emperor, names his pet monkey as consul. There is no historical evidence of this happening. This was possibly inspired by the earlier Roman emperor Caligula, who according to Suetonius, intended to name his horse Incitatus as consul.[123] An idea that is presented in both Gladiator films is the marking with fire of gladiators. This myth comes from an incorrect interpretation of Sacramentum of gladiators, which when translated into English means “I swear to let myself be burned” (bonded, punished, and killed with fire). The way this should be interpreted is more of a reference to combat than an actual mark that would identify you as a gladiator. However, this practice of marking did happen but only to slaves attempting to escape from their masters. Slaves running away from their masters were considered robbers because Romans believed when a slave tried running away from his master, he was “stealing himself” from his owner, so they would mark him so people would know he is a slave if he tried to run away again.[124] There is no historical record of a Roman general named Marcus Acacius.[116] The Roman co-emperors Geta and Caracalla were of mixed Italic, Arab, and Punic North African descent, but the actors who played them are not.[125] Accolades Award/Festival Date of ceremony Category Recipient(s) Result Ref. Hollywood Music in Media Awards November 20, 2024 Original Score – Feature Film Harry Gregson-Williams Nominated [126] Camerimage November 23, 2024 Golden Frog John Mathieson Nominated [127] National Board of Review Awards December 4, 2024 Top Ten Films Gladiator II Won [128][129] Golden Globe Awards January 5, 2025 Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Denzel Washington Pending [130] Cinematic and Box Office Achievement Gladiator II Pending AARP Movies for Grownups Awards January 11, 2025 Best Picture Gladiator II Pending [131] Best Director Ridley Scott Pending Best Supporting Actor Denzel Washington Pending Best Supporting Actress Connie Nielsen Pending Critics' Choice Movie Awards January 12, 2025 Best Supporting Actor Denzel Washington Pending [132] Best Costume Design Janty Yates and Dave Crossman Pending Best Production Design Arthur Max, Jille Azis, and Elli Griff Pending Best Visual Effects Mark Bakowski, Pietro Ponti, Nikki Penny, and Neil Corbould Pending Potential sequel In September 2024, Scott revealed that he was developing a script for a third film, and that the realization depends on the reception for the second installment. Titled Gladiator III, the plot was stated to follow the continuing adventures of Lucius Verus. Likening the ending of Gladiator II to The Godfather Part II (1974), the filmmaker stated that the next movie would explore the character's realization that he is now tasked with a continuing reputation that he does not want.[133][134] Scott later stated that the movie is in early stages of development and intended to be the next project he works on,[135] though the following month he stated to The New York Times his next projects after Gladiator II will be a Bee Gees biopic, set to shoot in September 2025, and an adaptation of the science fiction novel The Dog Stars, set to shoot in Italy in April 2025.[17][136] Notes As depicted in Gladiator (2000) References "Gladiator II (15)". BBFC. October 9, 2024. Retrieved November 17, 2024. Braslow, Samuel; Dolak, Kevin; Sancton, Julian (February 23, 2023). "Rambling Roundup: Ridley Scott's Very Expensive Roman Holiday". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on February 23, 2024. Retrieved February 23, 2023. D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 24, 2024). "'Wicked' & 'Gladiator II' AKA 'Glicked' Fuel $205M Combined Weekend, Best Pre-Thanksgiving Frame In 11 Years — Sunday AM Box Office Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on November 23, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. Mike Fleming Jr (November 14, 2024). "'Gladiator II': Ridley Scott, Paul Mescal, Denzel Washington, Pedro Pascal & Connie Nielsen Reveal How All Roads Led To Ancient Rome". Deadline. Archived from the original on November 14, 2024. Retrieved November 14, 2024. costing about $210 million net budget "Gladiator II (2024)". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved December 31, 2024. "Gladiator II (2024) - Financial Information". The Numbers. Archived from the original on November 15, 2024. Retrieved December 31, 2024. "Prepare to be entertained". Gladiator Movie. Retrieved November 6, 2024. Scott, Ryan (November 15, 2024). "How Much Gladiator II Needs To Make To Become A Box Office Hit". SlashFilm. "Gladiator II trailer reveals that Lucius is the son of Russell Crowe's Maximus after all". Entertainment Weekly. September 23, 2024. Archived from the original on September 23, 2024. Retrieved September 23, 2024. @RottenTomatoes (November 26, 2023). "Ridley Scott gives us an inside scoop on Paul Mescal's role as Lucius in #Gladiator2" (Tweet) – via Twitter. "The First 'Gladiator 2' Trailer Is Epic And Absolutely Stunning". Forbes. July 9, 2024. Archived from the original on July 28, 2024. Retrieved July 28, 2024. Breznican, Anthony (July 1, 2024). "Paul Mescal vs. Pedro Pascal: A First Look at the Epic Gladiator II". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on July 7, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024. Huff, Lauren (September 23, 2024). "Connie Nielsen breaks down her emotional return to the Colosseum in 'insane' Gladiator II". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on September 24, 2024. Retrieved September 25, 2024. "Who is Macrinus in Gladiator 2? His Real Name Revealed | NerdVeda". November 23, 2024. "Is Denzel Washington's 'Gladiator II' Villain Based on a Real Roman Emperor? An Expert Weighs in (Exclusive)". Archived from the original on November 25, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. Travis, Ben (August 23, 2024). "Denzel Washington On Working With Tony And Ridley Scott: 'Both Are Great – They Can't Miss'". Empire. Archived from the original on August 23, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2024. Buchanan, Kyle (November 7, 2024). "With 'Gladiator II,' Ridley Scott Returns to the Arena". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 8, 2024. Retrieved November 8, 2024. Bentz, Adam (November 1, 2024). "Gladiator 2's Twin Emperors Were Inspired By Beavis & Butt-Head". Screen Rant. Retrieved November 2, 2024. Travis, Benn (August 23, 2024). "Joseph Quinn In Gladiator II Was Inspired By Gary Oldman And Philip Seymour Hoffman's Wildest Roles". Empire. Archived from the original on August 27, 2024. Retrieved September 1, 2024. "Now entering the arena: Paul Mescal and Pedro Pascal unsheathe Gladiator II". Entertainment Weekly. October 22, 2024. Retrieved October 22, 2024. Watson, Fay (July 19, 2024). "Gladiator 2's emperor actor teases the "wild" sequel and how his character is surprisingly inspired by punk star Sid Vicious". GamesRadar+. Archived from the original on July 20, 2024. Retrieved August 23, 2024. "Gladiator II - itw Lior Raz (Official video)". YouTube. October 27, 2024. Retrieved November 6, 2024. Rooney, David (November 11, 2024). "'Gladiator II' Review: Paul Mescal and a Scene-Stealing Denzel Washington in Ridley Scott's Entertaining but Imitative Sequel". The Hollywood Reporter. Tinoco, Armando (November 14, 2024). "Denzel Washington Says 'Gladiator II' Cut Gay Kiss: "I Guess They Weren't Ready For That Yet"". "Ridley Scott Says Denzel Washington's 'Gladiator II' Same-Sex Kiss 'Didn't Happen': 'They Acted the Moment'". Variety. November 18, 2024. Retrieved December 15, 2024. Stax (June 16, 2001). "IGN FilmForce Exclusive: David Franzoni in Negotiations for Another Gladiator!". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Linder, Brian (September 24, 2002). "A Hero Will Rise ... Again". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Stax (December 17, 2002). "A Hero Will Rise – From the Dead!". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Stax (September 11, 2003). "Ridley Talks Gladiator 2". IGN. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Weinberg, Scott (May 8, 2006). "Ridley Lays "Gladiator 2" to Rest". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on August 20, 2012. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Fischer, Russ (July 12, 2013). "WTF: Nick Cave Wanted to Call His Gladiator 2 Script Christ Killer". Slash Film. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Barber, Nicholas (August 9, 2018). "Gladiator 2: The strangest sequel never made?". British Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on December 4, 2020. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Michaels, Sean (May 6, 2009). "Nick Cave's rejected Gladiator 2 script uncovered!". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved January 6, 2023. "Paramount To Buy Dreamworks". www.cbsnews.com. December 11, 2005. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Hibberd, James (March 11, 2017). "Ridley Scott on Gladiator sequel: 'I know how to bring him back'". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on March 14, 2017. Retrieved January 6, 2023. "Paramount Boss on Gladiator II, Scary Sequels and Wicked Showdown". Bloomberg. October 18, 2024. Archived from the original on November 18, 2024. Retrieved November 23, 2024. Flemming, Mike Jr. (November 1, 2018). "Ridley Scott Moving Forward With Gladiator 2; Peter Craig To Write Script For Paramount". Deadline. Archived from the original on November 2, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Sprague, Mike (June 11, 2019). "Gladiator 2 Is Still Happening, Top Gun 2 Writer Takes on Script". MovieWeb. Archived from the original on June 12, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Ovenden, Olivia (February 11, 2018). "Gladiator 2: Ridley Scott's Oscar Winner Is Getting A Sequel". Esquire. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2023. New Idea (April 6, 2021). "Chris Hemsworth begs Russell Crowe: Let's make Gladiator 2!". New Idea. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Butcher, Sophie (September 29, 2021). "Ridley Scott Says Gladiator 2 Will Be 'Ready To Go' After Napoleon Movie – Exclusive". Empire. Archived from the original on September 29, 2021. Retrieved January 6, 2023. Fleming, Mike Jr. (November 12, 2021). "Ridley Scott Won't Let Age Or Pandemic Slow A Storytelling Appetite That Brought House of Gucci & The Last Duel; Napoleon & More 'Gladiator' Up Next". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 9, 2023. Graham, Jamie (October 6, 2023). "Ridley Scott couldn't stop thinking about Paul Mescal after watching Normal People, so he cast him in Gladiator 2". Total Film. Archived from the original on October 8, 2023. Retrieved October 8, 2023. "Gladiator 2: Ridley Scott Sees Our Future in the Fallen Roman Empire". Den of Geek. October 17, 2024. Retrieved October 20, 2024. Cripe, Michael (July 9, 2024). "Ridley Scott Has Wanted That Rhino Battle From the Gladiator 2 Trailer for 25 Years". IGN. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Cavanaugh, Patrick (June 11, 2020). "Gladiator Producer Reveals His Biggest Regret About the Film". Comicbook.com. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Davids, Brian (June 18, 2020). "How a Painting Wooed Ridley Scott into Directing 'Gladiator'". Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Bushby, Helen (July 9, 2024). "Gladiator II: Paul Mescal battles a rhino in upcoming film". BBC. Archived from the original on August 2, 2024. Retrieved August 1, 2024. Zammit, Mark Laurence (August 19, 2023). "Gladiator film to be given €47 million in taxpayers' money". Times of Malta. Allied Newspapers Limited. Archived from the original on August 22, 2023. Kroll, Justin (January 6, 2023). "Paul Mescal To Star In Ridley Scott's Gladiator Sequel For Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on January 6, 2023. Retrieved March 4, 2023. Kroll, Justin [@krolljvar] (January 6, 2023). "Butler didn't end up meeting as he was looking for a break after shooting MASTERS OF AIR, DUNE 2 and BIKERIDERS back-to-back-to-back. Came down to Paul, Miles and Tim and besides having great meeting with Paul, Ridley was looking for actor who wasn't quite a star yet for role" (Tweet). Archived from the original on March 10, 2023 – via Twitter. Lang, Brian (July 26, 2023). "After a Decade in Limbo, Brian Robbins Is Giving Paramount a Makeover With 'Ninja Turtles,' Tom Cruise and 'Gladiator 2'". Variety. Archived from the original on July 27, 2023. Retrieved July 27, 2023. "Paul Mescal Enters the Arena in Gladiator II". October 15, 2024. Retrieved October 16, 2024. Kroll, Justin (March 16, 2023). "Barry Keoghan In Talks To Join Gladiator Sequel At Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on March 16, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2023. Kroll, Justin (March 17, 2023). "Denzel Washington Reuniting With Ridley Scott On 'Gladiator' Sequel At Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 28, 2023. Retrieved March 17, 2023. Jackson, Angelique (March 17, 2023). "Denzel Washington in Talks to Join Ridley Scott's Gladiator Sequel". Variety. Archived from the original on April 28, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. Kroll, Justin (April 28, 2023). "Paramount's Gladiator Sequel's Cast Grows As Connie Nielsen Closes Deal To Return As Lucilla While Stranger Things Breakout Joseph Quinn Lands Emperor Caracalla Role". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. Galuppo, Mia; Kit, Borys (April 28, 2023). "Stranger Things Star Joseph Quinn Set for Gladiator Sequel". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on May 9, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. Kroll, Justin (May 1, 2023). "Pedro Pascal Joins Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator' Sequel At Paramount". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 21, 2023. Retrieved May 1, 2023. Kroll, Justin (May 18, 2023). "Paramount's Gladiator Sequel Rounds Out Cast With Moon Knight Breakout May Calamawy & Others; White Lotus Actor Fred Hechinger In Talks For Emperor Geta Role". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on May 18, 2023. Retrieved May 18, 2023. While many of the leading roles were straight offers, Scott wanted to do a similar search he did for the Mescal part for the role that Calamawy ultimately landed. Given the importance of the character to the story, Scott wanted a thorough search, and following multiple auditions Calamawy landed the part. Italiano, Eric (December 15, 2023). "Djimon Hounsou Says He Is Not Returning For The Gladiator Sequel (Exclusive)". BroBible. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved December 15, 2023. "Gladiator movie sequel to be filmed in Morocco's Ouarzazate". Middle East Monitor. January 8, 2023. Archived from the original on January 8, 2023. Retrieved April 29, 2023. Zouiten, Sara (April 12, 2023). "Construction Begins on Giant Arena for Gladiator 2 in Morocco's Ouarzazate". Morocco World News. Archived from the original on April 13, 2023. Retrieved April 29, 2023. Rajput, Priyanca (June 8, 2023). "Ridley Scott's Gladiator 2 enters production". KFTV.com. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 8, 2023. Romano, Nick (April 17, 2024). "Inside Joseph Quinn's breakthrough year: Gladiator II, Fantastic Four, and more". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on April 23, 2024. Retrieved April 23, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (June 9, 2023). "Six Gladiator 2 Crewmembers Injured In Stunt Accident On Set". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved June 9, 2023. Gonzalez, Umberto (July 14, 2023). "Here Are All The Movies Affected by the SAG-AFTRA Strike From Deadpool 3 to Mission: Impossible 8 (Photos)". TheWrap. Archived from the original on July 14, 2023. Retrieved July 14, 2023. Lang, Brent; Tangcay, Jazz (November 28, 2023). "Gladiator 2 Resuming Production in Malta Next Week (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Archived from the original on November 28, 2023. Retrieved November 28, 2023. Gearan, Hannah (January 17, 2024). "Gladiator 2 Completes Filming, New Star Celebrates With BTS Ridley Scott Image". Screen Rant. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved February 26, 2024. "Gladiator II filming crews and Paul Mescal spotted in Sussex". The Argus. June 11, 2024. Archived from the original on June 12, 2024. Retrieved June 12, 2024. Ritman, Alex (January 5, 2024). "Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator 2' Taps Hans Zimmer Protégé Harry Gregson-Williams as Composer (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Archived from the original on January 5, 2024. Retrieved January 5, 2024. Warmann, Amon (March 6, 2024). "HANS ZIMMER: 'I HAD TO CHANGE STYLE BECAUSE EVERYONE ELSE WAS DOING MINE'". Curzon. Archived from the original on June 15, 2024. Retrieved June 15, 2024. "'Gladiator II' Composer Harry Gregson-Williams Sought Mentor Hans Zimmer's Approval To Tackle Sequel & Borrow Cues From The First Film – Sound & Screen Film". Deadline. November 2, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024. McPherson, Chris (June 19, 2024). "'Gladiator 2' Just Won the Battle for an Earlier Release Date Internationally". Collider. Archived from the original on June 19, 2024. Retrieved June 21, 2024. Tartaglione, Nancy (June 19, 2024). "Paramount Goes Epic At CineEurope With 'Gladiator II' Footage; Highlights 'A Quiet Place: Day One' & 'Transformers One'". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 20, 2024. Retrieved June 29, 2024. Choy, Rachel (July 10, 2024). "Gladiator II: Everything We Know Including Trailer, Plot, Release Date & Cast". Pedestrian.tv. Nine Entertainment Co. Archived from the original on August 12, 2024. Retrieved August 12, 2024. Dixit, Marni (October 31, 2024). "Paul Mescal stunned by detail at Gladiator II Sydney premiere: 'Absolutely mad'". Yahoo! Lifestyle. Retrieved November 12, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (February 3, 2023). "'Gladiator 2′ Gets Pre-Thanksgiving 2024 Release". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on July 5, 2023. Retrieved February 3, 2023. Blistein, Jon (July 2, 2024). "If 'Wicked' and 'Gladiator 2' Is the Next 'Barbenheimer,' It Needs a Better Portmanteau Than 'Wickiator'". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on July 3, 2024. Retrieved July 5, 2024. Bergeson, Samantha (July 10, 2024). "Paul Mescal Anoints the Next 'Barbenheimer' with 'Gladiator 2' and 'Wicked' Opening Same Day: 'Glicked'". IndieWire. Archived from the original on July 16, 2024. Retrieved July 10, 2024. Lammer, Tim (December 14, 2024). "'Gladiator II' Gets Digital Streaming Premiere Date". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 15, 2024. Retrieved December 14, 2024. Rigdely, Charlie (August 27, 2024). "Gladiator II Rating Confirms the Colosseum Will Get Bloody". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on August 28, 2024. Retrieved August 28, 2024. Jones, Tamera; Weintraub, Steven (November 3, 2024). ""It Warns Us What Happens If We Allow AI Into Our Universe": Ridley Scott Explains How '2001 A Space Odyssey' Predetermined The Future". Collider. Retrieved November 5, 2024. "Gladiator II". Australian Classification Board. November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 28, 2024. Van Reeth, Magali (November 15, 2024). "GLADIATOR II by Ridley Scott". SIGNIS. Archived from the original on November 18, 2024. Retrieved November 25, 2024. "Gladiator II (Home Entertainment Version)". Australian Classification Board. November 25, 2024. Retrieved December 10, 2024. Tartaglione, Nancy (June 19, 2024). "Paramount Goes Epic At CineEurope With 'Gladiator II' Footage; Highlights 'A Quiet Place: Day One' & 'Transformers One'". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on June 20, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024. Adams, Timothy (July 8, 2024). "First Gladiator 2 Poster Released Ahead of Trailer Debut". ComicBook.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2024. Retrieved July 8, 2024. McPherson, Chris (June 24, 2024). "Here's When the 'Gladiator 2' Trailer Will Drop [Exclusive]". Collider. Archived from the original on June 25, 2024. Retrieved June 25, 2024. Ouellette, Jennifer (July 9, 2024). "It's another bloody power struggle for Rome's future in Gladiator II trailer". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on July 10, 2024. Retrieved July 10, 2024. Stolworthy, Jacob (July 10, 2024). "Gladiator 2 trailer causes ridiculous debate among film fans". The Independent. Archived from the original on July 12, 2024. Retrieved July 13, 2024. Bentz, Adam (October 22, 2024). ""Oh Sh*t": Gladiator II's Paul Mescal Reveals How He Reacted To The Maximus Twist". Screen Rant. Retrieved October 23, 2024. "PEPSI® KICKS OFF 2024 NFL SEASON WITH COLOSSAL CAMPAIGN INSPIRED BY PARAMOUNT PICTURES' UPCOMING "GLADIATOR II", STARRING MEGAN THEE STALLION AND NFL SUPERSTARS JOSH ALLEN, DERRICK HENRY, JUSTIN JEFFERSON, AND TRAVIS KELCE" (Press release). Purchase, New York: PepsiCo. PR Newswire. September 5, 2024. Retrieved September 5, 2024. Thompson, Andrew (October 4, 2024). "Gladiator II movie starring Denzel Washington named main sponsor of NJPW King of Pro-Wrestling". POST Wrestling. Archived from the original on October 4, 2024. Retrieved October 4, 2024. "Il Gladiatore II e Francesco Totti sorprendono il Lucca Comics & Games". boxofficebiz.it. boxofficebiz.it. November 1, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024. "Francesco Totti gladiatore al Lucca Comics: sorpresa in piazza San Michele". lanazione.it. lanazione.it. November 1, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024. "Scuderia Ferrari HP celebrates together with Paramount the release of Gladiator II". Scuderia Ferrari. November 11, 2024. Retrieved November 18, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 19, 2024). "'Wicked' To Win Over The World With $165M-$200M Opening; 'Gladiator II' Passing $100M Overseas Today With An Eye On $60M+ U.S. Weekend – Box Office Preview". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on November 20, 2024. Retrieved November 19, 2024. "Long Range Forecast: Gladiator II Goes to Battle at the Box Office". Boxoffice Pro. October 24, 2024. Retrieved November 11, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (December 1, 2024). "Chee Hoo Mania At The Box Office: 'Moana 2' $221M 5-Day Opening Is Best 5-Day & Thanksgiving Ever; 'Wicked' Wows $117M+ & 'Gladiator II' $44M – Sunday Update". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved December 1, 2024. D'Alessandro, Anthony (December 8, 2024). "'Moana 2', 'Wicked' & 'Gladiator II' Driving Record Post-Thanksgiving Frame Near $132M – Sunday AM Update". Deadline Hollywood. Archived from the original on December 7, 2024. Retrieved December 8, 2024. Rebecca Rubin (December 8, 2024). "Box Office: 'Moana 2' Scores $52 Million in Second Weekend, A24's 'Y2K' Craters With $2 Million Debut". Variety. Archived from the original on December 8, 2024. Retrieved December 8, 2024. Shoard, Catherine (November 18, 2024). "Gladiator II takes $87m to break Ridley Scott opening box-office record". The Guardian. Retrieved November 19, 2024. Tartaglione, Nancy (November 24, 2024). "'Wicked' Casts $164M+ Spell In Global Opening; 'Gladiator II' Thunders To $221M WW After 2nd Offshore Frame – International Box Office". Deadline. Archived from the original on December 1, 2024. Retrieved December 1, 2024. "Gladiator II". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango Media. Retrieved January 1, 2025. Edit this at Wikidata "Gladiator II". Metacritic. Fandom, Inc. Retrieved December 11, 2024. "Gladiator II First Reviews: The Grand Spectacle of Action and Intrigue You're Hoping For". Archived from the original on November 12, 2024. Retrieved November 12, 2024. "Best Movies Directed by Ridley Scott, Ranked". Metacritic. November 20, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Thomas, Carly (October 18, 2024). "Gladiator II First Reactions From Early Screening: "A Total Spectacle With a Pulsating Pace"". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved October 19, 2024. Garner, Glenn (October 20, 2024). "Gladiator II First Reactions Call Ridley Scott's Sequel "Unhinged," "Deliciously Cinematic And Machiavellian": "Can't Believe Ridley Pulled This Off"". Deadline. Retrieved October 21, 2024. "Gladiator II First Reactions: Ridley Scott Has Done It Again". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved October 22, 2024. "Directors Pick Favorite Films of 2024: Christopher Nolan Praises 'Gladiator II,' Barry Jenkins on 'Nickel Boys,' Jeff Nichols on 'Sing Sing' and More". Ray Laurence (November 14, 2024). "Gladiator II: How historically accurate is it?". Macquarie University. Archived from the original on November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 17, 2024. "The Only History 'Gladiator II' Cares About Is Its Own". IndieWire. November 22, 2024. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "The Real History Behind Ridley Scott's 'Gladiator II' and Life as a Fighter in the Ancient Roman Arena". Smithsonian. November 21, 2024. Lochun, Kev (November 15, 2024). "Sharks in the arena? Gladiator II's real history and historical accuracy explained". BBC History Magazine. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "Battle of Salamis: The Unexpected Greek Victory over the Persians". TheCollector. July 14, 2023. Archived from the original on June 15, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. Wilkes, Jonny (November 15, 2024). "The real Macrinus: how Gladiator II's power broker became a short-lived Roman emperor". BBC History Magazine. Archived from the original on November 17, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "Gladiator 2's Denzel Washington Reflects On Historical Inaccuracy Of His Character: "Macrinus Wasn't Black"". Screen Rant. November 22, 2024. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. "Which Characters from Gladiator II Are Real?". Biography.com. November 21, 2024. Archived from the original on November 22, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Jonathan Dean (November 22, 2024). "Denzel Washington: 'I made some real clunkers after Malcolm X'". The Times. Archived from the original on November 18, 2024. Retrieved December 30, 2024. "The Real Roman History Behind 'Gladiator II', Explained". Esquire. July 9, 2024. Archived from the original on August 28, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. Cava, Marco della. "Fact-checking 'Gladiator II': Were there really sharks in the Colosseum?". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on November 26, 2024. Retrieved November 30, 2024. World, SPQR | Ancient Rome and the Ancient (January 30, 2024). "Common Misconceptions about Gladiators". Medium. Retrieved December 1, 2024. "Hollywood's Gladiator II: Another missed opportunity for authentic North African representation". The New Arab. August 9, 2024. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Willman, Chris (November 6, 2024). "Hollywood Music in Media Awards Noms Led by 'Emilia Pérez' and 'Blitz,' With Elton John, Hans Zimmer and Scores More Among the Nominees". Hollywood Music in Media Awards. Retrieved November 6, 2024. camerimage.pl https://camerimage.pl/en/movies/2024/659768. Retrieved November 15, 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) Davis, Clayton (December 4, 2024). "'Wicked' Named Best Picture by National Board of Review, Daniel Craig and Nicole Kidman Among Acting Winners". Variety. Archived from the original on December 5, 2024. Retrieved December 4, 2024. Lattanzio, Ryan (December 4, 2024). "'Wicked' and Jon M. Chu Win Big with the National Board of Review — See the Full List". IndieWire. Archived from the original on December 5, 2024. Retrieved December 4, 2024. Barnard, Matthew (December 9, 2024). "NOMINATIONS ANNOUNCED FOR 82nd ANNUAL GOLDEN GLOBES®". Golden Globes. Archived from the original on December 9, 2024. Retrieved December 9, 2024. Lewis, Hilary (November 20, 2024). "Movies for Grownups Awards: 'Conclave' Leads With 6 Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 22, 2024. Evans, Greg (December 12, 2024). "'Conclave' And 'Wicked' Lead Critics Choice Awards Film Nominations – Full List". Deadline. Archived from the original on December 14, 2024. Retrieved December 14, 2024. Picard, Sylvestre (September 20, 2024). "Ridley Scott is already preparing Gladiator 3 [exclusive]". Premiere. Retrieved September 20, 2024. Sharf, Zack (September 20, 2024). "Ridley Scott Is 'Already Toying With the Idea' for 'Gladiator 3': 'Seriously! I've Lit the Fuse'". Variety. Archived from the original on September 23, 2024. Retrieved September 24, 2024. Hibberd, James & Aaron Couch (September 20, 2024). "Ridley Scott Planning a 'Gladiator 3': "There's Already an Idea"". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 24, 2024. "Sir Ridley Scott on Gladiator II". Apple Podcasts. Archived from the original on November 21, 2024. Retrieved November 24, 2024. External links Quotations related to Gladiator II at Wikiquote Official website Edit this at Wikidata Gladiator II at IMDb vte Ridley Scott FilmographyAwards and nominationsUnrealised projects Feature films The Duellists (1977) Alien (1979) Blade Runner (1982) Legend (1985) Someone to Watch Over Me (1987) Black Rain (1989) Thelma & Louise (1991) 1492: Conquest of Paradise (1992) White Squall (1996) G.I. Jane (1997) Gladiator (2000) Hannibal (2001) Black Hawk Down (2001) Matchstick Men (2003) Kingdom of Heaven (2005) A Good Year (2006) American Gangster (2007) Body of Lies (2008) Robin Hood (2010) Prometheus (2012) The Counselor (2013) Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014) The Martian (2015) Alien: Covenant (2017) All the Money in the World (2017)The Last Duel (2021)House of Gucci (2021)Napoleon (2023)Gladiator II (2024) Other work Boy and Bicycle (short film, 1965) "The Bike Ride" (advertisement, 1973) "1984" (advertisement, 1984) All the Invisible Children (segment "Jonathan", 2005)"Raised by Wolves" (TV episode, 2020)"Pentagram" (TV episode, 2020) Family Tony Scott (brother)Giannina Facio (third wife)Jake Scott (son)Luke Scott (son)Jordan Scott (daughter) Related Ridley (Metroid)Scott Free Productions Category Portals: Ancient Rome icon Christianity Film flag United Kingdom flag United States Categories: 2024 filmsGladiator (2000 film)2024 action drama films2020s American films2020s British films2020s English-language films2020s historical drama filmsAmerican action drama filmsAmerican epic filmsAmerican films about revengeAmerican historical drama filmsAmerican sequel filmsBritish action drama filmsBritish epic filmsBritish films about revengeBritish historical drama filmsBritish sequel filmsCultural depictions of LucillaFilms affected by the 2023 SAG-AFTRA strikeFilms directed by Ridley ScottFilms produced by Ridley ScottFilms scored by Harry Gregson-WilliamsFilms set in 2nd-century Roman EmpireFilms about ChristianityFilms shot in MaltaFilms shot in OuarzazateFilms shot in the United KingdomFilms with screenplays by David ScarpaHistorical epic filmsScott Free Productions filmsParamount Pictures films2020s historical action filmsAmerican historical action filmsBritish historical action filmsEnglish-language historical drama filmsEnglish-language action drama films4DX filmsScreenX filmsIMAX films History of the Roman Empire Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Roman Empire Imperium Romanum (Latin) Senatus populusque Romanus Senate and People of Rome[n 1] Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων (Ancient Greek) Basileía Rhōmaíōn 27 BC – AD 395 395–476 (Western) 395–1453 (Eastern) 1204–1461 (Trebizond) Aureus of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. of Roman Empire Aureus of Augustus, the first Roman Emperor. The Roman Empire in AD 117, at its greatest extent.[1] The Roman Empire in AD 117, at its greatest extent.[1] Capital cities Rome Constantinople also: Antioch, Arelate, Augusta Treverorum, Mediolanum, Nicomedia, Ravenna, Sirmium Common languages Latin Greek numerous others Religion Roman polytheism Hellenistic polytheism Imperial cult numerous others official from AD 380: Christianity Government Autocracy Emperors • 27 BC – AD 14 Augustus (first) • 98–117 Trajan • 138–161 Antoninus Pius • 270–275 Aurelian • 284–305 Diocletian • 306–337 Constantine I • 379–395 Theodosius I • 474–480 Julius Neposa • 475–476 Romulus Augustus • 527–565 Justinian I • 610–641 Heraclius • 780–797 Constantine VI • 976–1025 Basil II • 1143–1180 Manuel I • 1449–1453 Constantine XIb Legislature Roman Senate Byzantine Senate Historical era Classical Antiquity to Late Middle Ages • Last war of the Roman Republic 32–30 BC • Empire established 30–2 BC • Empire at its greatest extent AD 117 • Constantinople inaugurated 11 May 330 • East–West division 17 January 395 • Fall of the West 4 September 476 • Sack of Constantinople 12–15 April 1204 • Reconquest of Constantinople 25 July 1261 • Fall of Constantinople 29 May 1453 Area 25 BC[2] 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) AD 117[2][3] 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) AD 390[2] 4,400,000 km2 (1,700,000 sq mi) Population • 25 BC[4] 56,800,000 Currency Sestertius, Aureus, Solidus, Nomismac Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Republic Byzantine Empire a Officially the final emperor of the Western empire. b Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire. c Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see below for currency denominations by period. Territorial development of the Roman Republic and of the Roman Empire (Animated map) The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of ancient Rome from the traditional end of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of Romulus Augustulus in AD 476 in the West, and the Fall of Constantinople in the East in 1453. Ancient Rome became a territorial empire while still a republic, but was then ruled by emperors beginning with Octavian Augustus, the final victor of the republican civil wars. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC, during the Punic Wars, after which the Republic expanded across the Mediterranean.[5][6][7][8] Civil war engulfed Rome in the mid-1st century BC, first between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and finally between Octavian (Caesar's grand-nephew) and Mark Antony. Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, leading to the annexation of Egypt. In 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the titles of Augustus ("venerated") and Princeps ("foremost"), thus beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history. Augustus' name was inherited by his successors, as well as his title of Imperator ("commander"), from which the term "emperor" is derived. Early emperors avoided any association with the ancient kings of Rome, instead presenting themselves as leaders of the Republic. The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs; the Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in AD 69 to the strife-torn Year of the Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor. Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically inclined Marcus Aurelius. In the view of the Greek historian Cassius Dio, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in AD 180 marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron"[9]—a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire. In 212, during the reign of Caracalla, Roman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the Empire. Despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous—an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution—and following its collapse, the Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Century, a 50-year period of invasions, civil strife, economic disorder, and epidemic disease.[10] In defining historical epochs, this crisis is typically viewed as marking the start of the Later Roman Empire,[11] and also the transition from Classical to Late antiquity. In the reign of Philip the Arab (r. 244–249), Rome celebrated its thousandth anniversary with the Saecular Games. Diocletian (r. 284–305) restored stability to the empire, modifying the role of princeps and adopting the style of dominus, "master" or "lord",[12] thus beginning the period known as the Dominate. Diocletian's reign also brought the Empire's most concerted effort against Christianity, the "Great Persecution". The state of absolute monarchy that began with Diocletian endured until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453. In 286, the empire was split into two halves, each with its own emperor and court. The empire was further divided into four regions in 293, beginning the Tetrarchy.[13] By this time, Rome itself was reduced to a symbolic status, as emperors ruled from different cities. Diocletian abdicated voluntarily along with his co-augustus, but the Tetrarchy almost immediately fell apart. The civil wars ended in 324 with the victory of Constantine I, who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity and who founded Constantinople as a new capital for the whole empire. The reign of Julian, who attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religion, only briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors of the Constantinian dynasty. During the decades of the Valentinianic and Theodosian dynasties, the established practice of dividing the empire in two was continued. Theodosius I, the last emperor to rule over both the Eastern empire and the whole Western empire, died in 395 after making Christianity the official religion of the Empire.[14] The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as the Germanic migrations and invasions of the Migration Period overwhelmed the capacity of the Empire to assimilate the immigrants and fight off the invaders. Most chronologies place the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to abdicate to the Germanic warlord Odoacer.[15] The Eastern empire exercised diminishing control over the west over the course of the next century and was reduced to Anatolia and the Balkans by the 7th. The empire in the east—known today as the Byzantine Empire, but referred to in its time as "Roman"—ended in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks (see History of the Byzantine Empire). 27 BC–AD 14: Augustus Further information: Praetorian Guard, Roman triumph, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius, and Publius Quinctilius Varus Octavian, the grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, had made himself a central military figure during the chaotic period following Caesar's assassination. In 43 BC, at the age of twenty, he became one of the three members of the Second Triumvirate, a political alliance with Marcus Lepidus and Mark Antony.[16] Octavian and Antony defeated the last of Caesar's assassins in 42 BC at the Battle of Philippi, although after this point tensions began to rise between the two. The triumvirate ended in 32 BC, torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members: Lepidus was forced into exile and Antony, who had allied himself with his lover Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, committed suicide in 30 BC following his defeat at the Battle of Actium (31 BC) by the fleet of Octavian. Octavian subsequently annexed Egypt to the empire.[17] Now sole ruler of Rome, Octavian began a full-scale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. The Senate granted him power over appointing its membership and several successive consulships, allowing him to operate within the existing constitutional machinery and thus reject titles that Romans associated with monarchy, such as rex ("king"). The dictatorship, a military office in the early Republic typically lasting only for the six-month military campaigning season, had been resurrected first by Sulla in the late 80s BC and then by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s; the title dictator was never again used. As the adopted heir of Julius Caesar, Octavian had taken "Caesar" as a component of his name, and handed down the name to his heirs of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. With Galba, the first emperor outside the dynasty, Caesar evolved into a formal title. The Augustus of Prima Porta Augustus created his novel and historically unique position by consolidating the constitutional powers of several Republican offices. He renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second settlement. Augustus was granted the authority of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to call together the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and it gave him the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus's tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinise laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for consolidating the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed those, is a matter of debate. In addition to those powers, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself; all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the prefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius (literally: "eminent proconsular command"), the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With imperium maius, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of the entire Roman army. The Senate re-classified the provinces at the frontiers (where the vast majority of the legions were stationed) as imperial provinces, and gave control of those to Augustus. The peaceful provinces were re-classified as senatorial provinces, governed as they had been during the Republic by members of the Senate sent out annually by the central government.[18] Senators were prohibited from so much as visiting Roman Egypt, given its great wealth and history as a base of power for opposition to the new emperor. Taxes from the imperial provinces went into the fiscus, the fund administered by persons chosen by and answerable to Augustus. The revenue from senatorial provinces continued to be sent to the state treasury (aerarium), under the supervision of the Senate. The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented 50 in number because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28. Several legions, particularly those with members of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were united, a fact hinted by the title Gemina (Twin).[19] Augustus also created nine special cohorts to maintain peace in Italia, with three, the Praetorian Guard, kept in Rome. Control of the fiscus enabled Augustus to ensure the loyalty of the legions through their pay. Augustus completed the conquest of Hispania, while subordinate generals expanded Roman possessions in Africa and Asia Minor. Augustus' final task was to ensure an orderly succession of his powers. His stepson Tiberius had conquered Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania for the Empire, and was thus a prime candidate. In 6 BC, Augustus granted some of his powers to his stepson,[20] and soon after he recognised Tiberius as his heir. In AD 13, a law was passed which extended Augustus' powers over the provinces to Tiberius,[21] so that Tiberius' legal powers were equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus.[21] Attempting to secure the borders of the Empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe, Augustus ordered the invasions of Illyria, Moesia, and Pannonia (south of the Danube), and Germania (west of the Elbe). At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to be crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by Germanic tribes led by Arminius. Being cautious, Augustus secured all territories west of the Rhine and contented himself with retaliatory raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the permanent borders of the Roman empire in the North. In AD 14, Augustus died at the age of seventy-five, having ruled the Empire for forty years, and was succeeded as emperor by Tiberius. Sources The Augustan Age is not as well documented as the age of Caesar and Cicero. Livy wrote his history during Augustus's reign and covered all of Roman history through to 9 BC, but only epitomes survive of his coverage of the late Republican and Augustan periods. Important primary sources for the Augustan period include: Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Augustus's highly partisan autobiography, Historiae Romanae by Velleius Paterculus, the best annals of the Augustan period, Controversiae and Suasoriae of Seneca the Elder. Works of poetry such as Ovid's Fasti and Propertius's Fourth Book, legislation and engineering also provide important insights into Roman life of the time. Archaeology, including maritime archaeology, aerial surveys, epigraphic inscriptions on buildings, and Augustan coinage, has also provided valuable evidence about economic, social and military conditions. Secondary ancient sources on the Augustan Age include Tacitus, Dio Cassius, Plutarch and Lives of the Twelve Caesars by Suetonius. Josephus's Jewish Antiquities is the important source for Judea, which became a province during Augustus's reign. 14–68: Julio-Claudian Dynasty Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty The Great Cameo of France, a cameo five layers sardonyx, Rome, c. AD 23, depicting the emperor Tiberius seated with his mother Livia and in front of his designated heir Germanicus, with the latter's wife Agrippina the Elder; above them float the deceased members of their house: Augustus, Drusus Julius Caesar, and Nero Claudius Drusus Augustus had three grandsons by his daughter Julia the Elder: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar and Agrippa Postumus. None of the three lived long enough to succeed him. He therefore was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. Tiberius was the son of Livia, the third wife of Augustus, by her first marriage to Tiberius Nero. Augustus was a scion of the gens Julia (the Julian family), one of the most ancient patrician clans of Rome, while Tiberius was a scion of the gens Claudia, only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the gens Claudia, through Tiberius' brother Nero Claudius Drusus, and from gens Julia, either through Julia the Elder, Augustus' daughter from his first marriage (Caligula and Nero), or through Augustus' sister Octavia Minor (Claudius). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "Julio-Claudian". 14–37: Tiberius Main article: Tiberius The early years of Tiberius's reign were relatively peaceful. Tiberius secured the overall power of Rome and enriched its treasury. However, his rule soon became characterised by paranoia. He began a series of treason trials and executions, which continued until his death in 37.[22] He left power in the hands of the commander of the guard, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Tiberius himself retired to live at his villa on the island of Capri in 26, leaving administration in the hands of Sejanus, who carried on the persecutions with contentment. Sejanus also began to consolidate his own power; in 31 he was named co-consul with Tiberius and married Livilla, the emperor's niece. At this point he was "hoist by his own petard": the emperor's paranoia, which he had so ably exploited for his own gain, turned against him. Sejanus was put to death, along with many of his associates, the same year. The persecutions continued until Tiberius' death in 37. 37–41: Caligula Main article: Caligula At the time of Tiberius's death most of the people who might have succeeded him had been killed. The logical successor (and Tiberius' own choice) was his 24-year-old grandnephew, Gaius, better known as "Caligula" ("little boots"). Caligula was a son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. His paternal grandparents were Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and his maternal grandparents were Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. He was thus a descendant of both Augustus and Livia. Marble bust of Caligula in the Liebieghaus, Frankfurt Caligula started out well, by putting an end to the persecutions and burning his uncle's records. Unfortunately, he quickly lapsed into illness. The Caligula that emerged in late 37 demonstrated features of mental instability that led modern commentators to diagnose him with such illnesses as encephalitis, which can cause mental derangement, hyperthyroidism, or even a nervous breakdown (perhaps brought on by the stress of his position). Whatever the cause, there was an obvious shift in his reign from this point on, leading his biographers to label him as insane. Most of what history remembers of Caligula comes from Suetonius, in his book Lives of the Twelve Caesars. According to Suetonius, Caligula once planned to appoint his favourite horse Incitatus to the Roman Senate. He ordered his soldiers to invade Britain to fight the sea god Neptune, but changed his mind at the last minute and had them pick sea shells on the northern end of France instead. It is believed he carried on incestuous relations with his three sisters: Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger. He ordered a statue of himself to be erected in Herod's Temple at Jerusalem, which would have undoubtedly led to revolt had he not been dissuaded from this plan by his friend king Agrippa I. He ordered people to be secretly killed, and then called them to his palace. When they did not appear, he would jokingly remark that they must have committed suicide. In 41, Caligula was assassinated by the commander of the guard Cassius Chaerea. Also killed were his fourth wife Caesonia and their daughter Julia Drusilla. For two days following his assassination, the Senate debated the merits of restoring the Republic.[23] 41–54: Claudius Main article: Claudius Portrait of Claudius, Altes Museum, Berlin Claudius was a younger brother of Germanicus, and had long been considered a weakling and a fool by the rest of his family. The Praetorian Guard, however, acclaimed him as emperor. Claudius was neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew Caligula, and was therefore able to administer the Empire with reasonable ability. He improved the bureaucracy and streamlined the citizenship and senatorial rolls. He ordered the construction of a winter port at Ostia Antica for Rome, thereby providing a place for grain from other parts of the Empire to be brought in inclement weather. Claudius ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine,[24] setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire's expansion in that direction.[25] In 43, he resumed the Roman conquest of Britannia that Julius Caesar had begun in the 50s BC, and incorporated more Eastern provinces into the empire. In his own family life, Claudius was less successful. His wife Messalina cuckolded him; when he found out, he had her executed and married his niece, Agrippina the Younger. She, along with several of his freedmen, held an inordinate amount of power over him, and although there are conflicting accounts about his death, she may very well have poisoned him in 54.[26] Claudius was deified later that year. The death of Claudius paved the way for Agrippina's own son, the 17-year-old Lucius Domitius Nero. 54–68: Nero Main article: Nero Portrait of Nero, Capitoline Museums Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included the Roman–Parthian War (a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63)), the suppression of a revolt led by Boudica in Britannia (60–61) and the improvement of cultural ties with Greece. However, he was egotistical and had severe troubles with his mother, who he felt was controlling and overbearing. After several attempts to kill her, he finally had her stabbed to death. He believed himself a god and decided to build an opulent palace for himself. The so-called Domus Aurea, meaning golden house in Latin, was constructed atop the burnt remains of Rome after the Great Fire of Rome (64). Because of the convenience of this many believe that Nero was ultimately responsible for the fire, spawning the legend of him fiddling while Rome burned which is almost certainly untrue. The Domus Aurea was a colossal feat of construction that covered a huge space and demanded new methods of construction in order to hold up the golden, jewel-encrusted ceilings. By this time Nero was hugely unpopular despite his attempts to blame the Christians for most of his regime's problems. A military coup drove Nero into hiding. Facing execution at the hands of the Roman Senate, he reportedly committed suicide in 68. According to Cassius Dio, Nero's last words were "Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!"[27][28] 68–69: Year of the Four Emperors Main article: Year of the Four Emperors vte Year of the Four Emperors Since he had no heir, Nero's suicide was followed by a brief period of civil war, known as the "Year of the Four Emperors". Between June 68 and December 69, Rome witnessed the successive rise and fall of Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the final accession of Vespasian, first ruler of the Flavian dynasty. The military and political anarchy created by this civil war had serious implications, such as the outbreak of the Batavian rebellion. These events showed that a military power alone could create an emperor.[29] Augustus had established a standing army, where individual soldiers served under the same military governors over an extended period of time. The consequence was that the soldiers in the provinces developed a degree of loyalty to their commanders, which they did not have for the emperor. Thus the Empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time.[30] Through his sound fiscal policy, the emperor Vespasian was able to build up a surplus in the treasury, and began construction on the Colosseum. Titus, Vespasian's son and successor, quickly proved his merit, although his short reign was marked by disaster, including the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Pompeii. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished Colosseum, but died in 81. His brother Domitian succeeded him. Having exceedingly poor relations with the Senate, Domitian was murdered in September 96. 69–96: Flavian dynasty Main article: Flavian dynasty The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Roman Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor. 69–79: Vespasian Main article: Vespasian Vespasian was a remarkably successful Roman general who had been given rule over much of the eastern part of the Roman Empire. He had supported the imperial claims of Galba, after whose death Vespasian became a major contender for the throne. Following the suicide of Otho, Vespasian was able to take control of Rome's winter grain supply in Egypt, placing him in a good position to defeat his remaining rival, Vitellius. On 20 December 69, some of Vespasian's partisans were able to occupy Rome. Vitellius was murdered by his own troops and, the next day, Vespasian, then sixty years old, was confirmed as emperor by the Senate. Although Vespasian was considered an autocrat by the Senate, he mostly continued the weakening of that body begun in the reign of Tiberius. The degree of the Senate's subservience can be seen from the post-dating of his accession to power, by the Senate, to 1 July, when his troops proclaimed him emperor, instead of 21 December, when the Senate confirmed his appointment. Another example was his assumption of the censorship in 73, giving him power over the make up of the Senate. He used that power to expel dissident senators. At the same time, he increased the number of senators from 200 (at that low level because of the actions of Nero and the year of crisis that followed), to 1,000; most of the new senators came not from Rome but from Italy and the urban centres within the western provinces. Vespasian commissioned the Colosseum in Rome. Vespasian was able to liberate Rome from the financial burdens placed upon it by Nero's excesses and the civil wars. To do this, he not only increased taxes, but created new forms of taxation. Also, through his power as censor, he was able to carefully examine the fiscal status of every city and province, many paying taxes based upon information and structures more than a century old. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury and embark on public works projects. It was he who first commissioned the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum); he also built the Forum of Vespasian, whose centrepiece was the Temple of Peace. In addition, he allotted sizeable subsidies to the arts, and created a chair of rhetoric at Rome. Vespasian was also an effective emperor for the provinces, having posts all across the empire, both east and west. In the west he gave considerable favouritism to Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) in which he granted Latin Rights to over three hundred towns and cities, promoting a new era of urbanisation throughout the western (formerly barbarian) provinces. Through the additions he made to the Senate he allowed greater influence of the provinces in the Senate, helping to promote unity in the empire. He also extended the borders of the empire, mostly done to help strengthen the frontier defences, one of Vespasian's main goals. The crisis of 69 had wrought havoc on the army. One of the most marked problems had been the support lent by provincial legions to men who supposedly represented the best will of their province. This was mostly caused by the placement of native auxiliary units in the areas they were recruited in, a practice Vespasian stopped; he mixed auxiliary units with men from other areas of the empire or moved the units away from where they were recruited. Also, to reduce further the chances of another military coup, he broke up the legions and, instead of placing them in singular concentrations, spread them along the border. Perhaps the most important military reform he undertook was the extension of legion recruitment from exclusively Italy to Gaul and Hispania, in line with the Romanisation of those areas. 79–81: Titus Main article: Titus Titus's triumph after the First Jewish-Roman War was celebrated with the Arch of Titus in Rome, which shows the treasures taken from the Temple Titus, the eldest son of Vespasian, had been groomed to rule. He had served as an effective general under his father, helping to secure the east and eventually taking over the command of Roman armies in Syria and Iudaea, quelling a significant First Jewish–Roman War at the time. He shared the consulship for several years with his father and received the best tutelage. Although there was some trepidation when he took office because of his known dealings with some of the less respectable elements of Roman society, he quickly proved his merit, even recalling many exiled by his father as a show of good faith. However, his short reign was marked by disaster: in 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted in Pompeii, and in 80, a fire destroyed much of Rome. His generosity in rebuilding after these tragedies made him very popular. Titus was very proud of his work on the vast amphitheatre begun by his father. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished edifice during the year 80, celebrating with a lavish show that featured 100 gladiators and lasted 100 days. Titus died in 81 at the age of 41 of what is presumed to be illness; it was rumoured that his brother Domitian murdered him in order to become his successor, although these claims have little merit. Whatever the case, he was greatly mourned and missed. 81–96: Domitian Main article: Domitian Domitian bust in the Louvre, Paris All of the Flavians had rather poor relations with the Senate due to their autocratic rule; however, Domitian was the only one who encountered significant problems. His continuous control as consul and censor throughout his rule—the former his father shared in much the same way as his Julio-Claudian forerunners, the latter presented difficulty even to obtain—were unheard of. In addition, he often appeared in full military regalia as an imperator, an affront to the idea of what the Principate-era emperor's power was based upon: the emperor as the princeps. His reputation in the Senate aside, he kept the people of Rome happy through various measures, including donations to every resident of Rome, wild spectacles in the newly finished Colosseum, and the continuation of the public works projects of his father and brother. He also apparently had the good fiscal sense of his father; although he spent lavishly, his successors came to power with a well-endowed treasury. Domitian repelled the Dacians in his Dacian War; the Dacians had sought to conquer Moesia, south of the Danube in the Roman Balkans. Toward the end of his reign Domitian became extremely paranoid, which probably had its roots in the treatment he received by his father: although given significant responsibility, he was never trusted with anything important without supervision. This flowered into the severe and perhaps pathological repercussions following the short-lived rebellion in 89 of Lucius Antonius Saturninus, a governor and commander in Germania Superior. Domitian's paranoia led to a large number of arrests, executions, and seizures of property (which might help explain his ability to spend so lavishly). Eventually it reached the point where even his closest advisers and family members lived in fear. This led to his murder in 96, orchestrated by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Praetorian Guard and the empress Domitia Longina. 96–180: Five Good Emperors Situation of Eurasia in 2nd Century AD Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty The next century came to be known as the period of the "Five Good Emperors", in which the succession was peaceful and the Empire prosperous. The emperors of this period were Nerva (96–98), Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138), Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), each one adopted by his predecessor as his successor during the former's lifetime. While their respective choices of successor were based upon the merits of the individual men they selected rather than dynastic, it has been argued that the real reason for the lasting success of the adoptive scheme of succession lay more with the fact that none but the last had a natural heir. The last two emperors of the "Five Good Emperors" and Commodus are also called Antonines. 96–98: Nerva Main article: Nerva After his accession, Nerva set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future prosecutions for treason, restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular and therefore alive, but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained strong, and in October 97 the Praetorian Guard laid siege to the Imperial Palace on the Palatine Hill and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. Nerva then adopted Trajan, a commander of the armies on the German frontier, as his successor shortly thereafter in order to bolster his own rule. Casperius Aelianus, the Guard Prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, was later executed under Trajan. 98–117: Trajan Main article: Trajan Trajan's Column in Trajan's Forum, marble with stone-carved reliefs that show various scenes depicting events of Trajan's Dacian Wars Upon his accession to the throne, Trajan prepared and launched a carefully planned military invasion in Dacia, a region north of the lower Danube whose inhabitants the Dacians had long been an opponent to Rome. In 101, Trajan personally crossed the Danube and defeated the armies of the Dacian king Decebalus at the Battle of Tapae. The emperor decided not to press on towards a final conquest as his armies needed reorganisation, but he did impose very hard peace conditions on the Dacians. At Rome, Trajan was received as a hero and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period.[31] Decebalus complied with the terms for a time, but before long he began inciting revolt. In 105 Trajan once again invaded and after a yearlong invasion ultimately defeated the Dacians by conquering their capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia. King Decebalus, cornered by the Roman cavalry, eventually committed suicide rather than being captured and humiliated in Rome. The conquest of Dacia was a major accomplishment for Trajan, who ordered 123 days of celebration throughout the empire. He also constructed Trajan's Column in the middle of Trajan's Forum in Rome to glorify the victory. In 112, Trajan was provoked by the decision of Osroes I to put the latter’s own nephew Axidares on the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia. The Arsacid dynasty of Armenia was a branch of the Parthian royal family established in 54. Since then, the two great empires had shared hegemony of Armenia. The encroachment on the traditional Roman sphere of influence by Osroes ended the peace which had lasted for some 50 years.[32] The maximum extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117) Trajan first invaded Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthian territory in Mesopotamia, taking the cities of Babylon, Seleucia and finally the capital of Ctesiphon in 116, while suppressing the Kitos War, a Jewish uprising across the eastern provinces. He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, whence he took Mesopotamia as a new province of the empire and lamented that he was too old to follow in the steps of Alexander the Great and continue his invasion eastward. But he did not stop there. In 116, he captured the great city of Susa. He deposed the emperor Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. Not until the reign of Heraclius would the Roman army push so far to the east, and Roman territory never again reached so far eastward. During his rule, the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent; it was quite possible for a Roman to travel from Britain to the Persian Gulf without leaving Roman territory. 117–138: Hadrian Main article: Hadrian Parts of Hadrian's Wall in Britain remain to this day. Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked more by the defence of the empire's vast territories, rather than major military conflicts. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in Mesopotamia, considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with Vologases III of Parthia around 121, but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed the Bar Kokhba revolt, a massive Jewish uprising in Judea (132–135). Hadrian was the first emperor to extensively tour the provinces, donating money for local construction projects as he went. In Britain, he ordered the construction of a wall, the famous Hadrian's Wall as well as various other such defences in Germania and North Africa. His domestic policy was one of relative peace and prosperity. 138–161: Antoninus Pius Main article: Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius's reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Judaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britain, but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britain is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned. 161–180: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Main articles: Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus Germanic tribes and other people launched many raids along the long north European border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube; Germans, in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east, driving them into the empire. His campaigns against them are commemorated on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. Busts of Marcus Aurelius and his co-ruler Lucius Verus Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), British Museum In Asia, a revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his co-emperor Lucius Verus to command the legions in the East. Lucius was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded—Verus remained loyal until his death, while on campaign, in 169. In 175, while on campaign in northern Germany in the Marcomannic Wars, Marcus was forced to contend with a rebellion by Avidius Cassius, a general who had been an officer during the wars against Persia. Cassius proclaimed himself Roman Emperor and took the provinces of Egypt and Syria as his part of the Empire. It is said that Cassius had revolted as he had heard word that Marcus was dead. After three months Cassius was assassinated and Marcus restored the eastern part of the Empire. In the last years of his life Marcus, a philosopher as well as an emperor, wrote his book of Stoic philosophy known as the Meditations. The book has since been hailed as Marcus' great contribution to philosophy. When Marcus died in 180 the throne passed to his son Commodus, who had been elevated to the rank of co-emperor in 177. This ended the succession plan of the previous four emperors where the emperor would adopt his successor, although Marcus was the first emperor since Vespasian to have a natural son that could succeed him, which probably was the reason he allowed the throne to pass to Commodus and not adopt a successor from outside his family. Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25–220) tomb, Guangxi, China It is possible that an alleged Roman embassy from "Daqin" that arrived in Eastern Han China in 166 via a Roman maritime route into the South China Sea, landing at Jiaozhou (northern Vietnam) and bearing gifts for the Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168), was sent by Marcus Aurelius, or his predecessor Antoninus Pius (the confusion stems from the transliteration of their names as "Andun", Chinese: 安敦).[33][34] The embassy was perhaps simply a group of Roman merchants, not official diplomats.[35] Other Roman embassies of the 3rd century supposedly visited China by sailing along the same maritime route.[34] These were preceded by the appearance of Roman glasswares in Chinese tombs, the earliest piece found at Guangzhou (along the coast of the South China Sea) and dating to the 1st century BC.[36] The earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century AD and appear to have come by way of the Silk Road through Central Asia.[37] However, Roman golden medallions from the reign of Antoninus Pius, and possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius, have been discovered at Óc Eo (in southern Vietnam), which was then part of the kingdom of Funan near Chinese-controlled Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam) and the region where Chinese historical texts claim the Romans first landed before venturing further into China to conduct diplomacy.[38][39] Furthermore, in his Geography (c. AD 150), Ptolemy described the location of the Golden Chersonese, now known as the Malay Peninsula, and beyond this a trading port called Kattigara. Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed this as Hanoi, yet the Roman and Mediterranean artefacts found at Óc Eo suggest this location instead.[38][40] 180–193: Commodus and the Year of the Five Emperors Main article: Year of the Five Emperors Commodus Main article: Commodus A bust of Commodus, depicting him as the legendary Heracles (i.e. Hercules) wearing the skins of the Nemean lion The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the reign of Commodus from 180 to 192. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius, making him the first direct successor in a century, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had worked so well. He was co-emperor with his father from 177. When he became sole emperor upon the death of his father in 180, it was at first seen as a hopeful sign by the people of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, as generous and magnanimous as his father was, Commodus was just the opposite. In The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon noted that Commodus at first ruled the Empire well. However, after an assassination attempt involving a conspiracy by certain members of his family, Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity. The Pax Romana, or "Roman Peace", ended with the reign of Commodus. One could argue that the assassination attempt began the long decline of the Roman Empire. When Commodus' behaviour became increasingly erratic throughout the early 190s, Pertinax is thought to have been implicated in the conspiracy that led to Commodus' assassination on 31 December 192.[citation needed] The plot was carried out by the Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus, Commodus' mistress Marcia, and his chamberlain Eclectus.[41] Pertinax Main article: Pertinax After the murder had been carried out, Pertinax, who was serving as urban prefect at this time, was hurried to the Praetorian Camp and proclaimed emperor the following morning.[42] His short reign (86 days) was an uneasy one. He attempted to emulate the restrained practices of Marcus Aurelius, and made an effort to reform the welfare programme for poor children but he faced antagonism from many quarters.[43] Roman aureus struck under the rule of Pertinax. Inscription: IMP. CAES. P. HELV. PERTIN. AVG. / PROVIDentia DEORum COnSul II His monetary reform was far-sighted, but would not survive his death. He attempted to impose stricter military discipline upon the pampered Praetorians.[44] In early March he narrowly averted one conspiracy by a group to replace him with the consul Quintus Pompeius Sosius Falco while he was in Ostia inspecting the arrangements for grain shipments.[45] The plot was betrayed; Falco himself was pardoned but several of the officers behind the coup were executed.[46] On 28 March 193, Pertinax was at his palace when a contingent of some three hundred soldiers of the Praetorian Guard rushed the gates[47] (two hundred according to Cassius Dio).[48] Sources suggest that they had received only half their promised pay.[45] Neither the guards on duty nor the palace officials chose to resist them. Pertinax sent Laetus to meet them, but he chose to side with the insurgents instead and deserted the emperor.[49] Although advised to flee, he then attempted to reason with them, and was almost successful before being struck down by one of the soldiers.[50] The Praetorian Guards auctioned off the imperial position, which senator Didius Julianus won and became the new emperor.[citation needed] Didius Julianus Main article: Didius Julianus Bust of Clodius Albinus (d. 197), a usurper who was proclaimed emperor after the assassination of Pertinax Upon his accession, Julianus immediately devalued the Roman currency by decreasing the silver purity of the denarius from 87% to 81.5%.[51] After the initial confusion had subsided, the population did not tamely submit to the dishonour brought upon Rome.[52][53][54] Whenever Julianus appeared in public he was saluted with groans, imprecations, and shouts of "robber and parricide."[55] The mob tried to obstruct his progress to the Capitol, and even threw stones.[56] When news of the public anger in Rome spread across the Empire, the generals Pescennius Niger in Syria, Septimius Severus in Pannonia, and Clodius Albinus in Britain, each having three legions under his command, refused to recognise the authority of Julianus.[57][58] Julianus declared Severus a public enemy because he was the nearest of the three and, therefore, the most dangerous foe.[59][60] Deputies were sent from the Senate to persuade the soldiers to abandon him;[60] a new general was nominated to supersede him, and a centurion dispatched to take his life.[61] The Praetorian Guard, lacking discipline and sunk in debauchery and sloth, were incapable of offering any effectual resistance.[62] Julianus, now desperate, attempted negotiation and offered to share the empire with his rival.[63][64] [65][66] Severus ignored these overtures and pressed forward, all Italy declaring for him as he advanced.[67] At last the Praetorians, having received assurances that they would suffer no punishment – provided they surrendered the actual murderers of Pertinax – seized the ringleaders of the conspiracy and reported what they had done to Silius Messala, the consul, by whom the Senate was summoned and informed of the proceedings.[68] Julianus was killed in the palace by a soldier in the third month of his reign (1 June 193).[69][70] Severus dismissed the Praetorian Guard and executed the soldiers who had killed Pertinax.[71] According to Cassius Dio, who lived in Rome during the period, Julianus's last words were "But what evil have I done? Whom have I killed?"[69] His body was given to his wife and daughter, who buried it in his great-grandfather's tomb by the fifth milestone on the Via Labicana.[72] 193–235: Severan dynasty Septimius Severus (193–211) Main article: Septimius Severus The empire under Septimius Severus (210) Lucius Septimius Severus was born to a family of Phoenician equestrian rank in the Roman province of Africa proconsularis. He rose through military service to consular rank under the later Antonines. Proclaimed emperor in 193 by his legionaries in Noricum during the political unrest that followed the death of Commodus, he secured sole rule over the empire in 197 after defeating his last rival, Clodius Albinus, at the Battle of Lugdunum. In securing his position as emperor, he founded the Severan dynasty. Severus fought a successful war against the Parthians and campaigned with success against barbarian incursions in Roman Britain, rebuilding Hadrian's Wall. In Rome, his relations with the Senate were poor, but he was popular with the commoners, as with his soldiers, whose salary he raised. Starting in 197, the influence of his Praetorian prefect Gaius Fulvius Plautianus was a negative influence; the latter was executed in 205. One of Plautianus's successors was the jurist Papinian. Severus continued official persecution of Christians and Jews, as they were the only two groups who would not assimilate their beliefs to the official syncretistic creed. Severus died while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, whom he made his co-Augusti and who reigned under the influence of their mother, Julia Domna. Caracalla and Geta (198–217) Main articles: Caracalla and Geta (emperor) Caracalla and Geta, Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1907). The eldest son of Severus, Caracalla was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lugdunum, Gaul. "Caracalla" was a nickname referring to the Gallic hooded tunic he habitually wore even when he slept. Before his father's death, Caracalla was proclaimed co-emperor with his father and brother Geta. Conflict between the two culminated in the assassination of the latter. Unlike the much more successful joint reign of Marcus Aurelius and his brother Lucius Verus in the previous century, relations were hostile between the two Severid brothers from childhood. Geta was assassinated in his mother's apartments by order of Caracalla, who thereafter ruled as sole Augustus. Reigning alone, Caracalla was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty, authorising numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals. He campaigned with indifferent success against the Alamanni. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule. His reign was also notable for the Antonine Constitution (Latin: Constitutio Antoniniana), also known as the Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all freemen throughout the Roman Empire. He was assassinated while en route to a campaign against the Parthians by the Praetorian Guard. Severan dynasty family tree Interlude: Macrinus and Diadumenian (217–218) Main articles: Macrinus and Diadumenian Macrinus was born in 164 at Caesarea. Although coming from a humble background that was not dynastically related to the Severan dynasty, he rose through the imperial household until, under the emperor Caracalla, he was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard. On account of the cruelty and treachery of the emperor, Macrinus became involved in a conspiracy to kill him, and ordered the Praetorian Guard to do so. On 8 April 217, Caracalla was assassinated travelling to Carrhae. Three days later, Macrinus was declared Augustus. Diadumenian was the son of Macrinus, born in 208. He was given the title Caesar in 217, when his father became Augustus, and raised to co-Augustus the following year. His most significant early decision was to make peace with the Parthian Empire, but many thought that the terms were degrading to the Romans. However, his downfall was his refusal to award the pay and privileges promised to the eastern troops by Caracalla. He also kept those forces wintered in Syria, where they became attracted to the young Elagabalus. After months of mild rebellion by the bulk of the army in Syria, Macrinus took his loyal troops to meet the army of Elagabalus near Antioch. Despite a good fight by the Praetorian Guard, his soldiers were defeated. Macrinus managed to escape to Chalcedon, but his authority was lost: he was betrayed and executed after a short reign of just 14 months. After his father's defeat outside Antioch, Diadumenian tried to escape east to Parthia, but was captured and killed. Elagabalus (218–222) Main article: Elagabalus Roman aureus depicting Elagabalus. The reverse commemorates the sun god Elagabal. Born Varius Avitus Bassianus on 16 May 205, known later as M. Aurelius Antonius, he was appointed at an early age to be priest of the sun god, Elagabalus, represented by a large, dark rock called a baetyl, by which name he is known to historians (his name is sometimes written "Heliogabalus"). He was proclaimed emperor by the troops of Emesa, his hometown, who were instigated to do so by Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa. She spread a rumour that Elagabalus was the secret son of Caracalla. This revolt spread to the entire Syrian army (which, at the time, was swollen with troops raised by the emperor Caracalla, and not fully loyal to Macrinus), and eventually they were to win the short struggle that followed by defeating Macrinus at a battle just outside Antioch. Elagabalus was then accepted by the Senate, and he began the slow journey to Rome. His reign in Rome has long been known for outrageousness, although the historical sources are few, and in many cases not to be fully trusted. He is said to have smothered guests at a banquet by flooding the room with rose petals; married his male lover – who was then referred as the 'empress's husband'; and married one of the Vestal Virgins. Some say he was transgender, and one ancient text states that he offered half the empire to the physician who could give him female genitalia. The running of the Empire during this time was mainly left to his grandmother and mother (Julia Soaemias). Seeing that her grandson's outrageous behaviour could mean the loss of power, Julia Maesa persuaded Elagabalus to accept his cousin Severus Alexander as Caesar (and thus the nominal emperor-to-be). However, Alexander was popular with the troops, who viewed their new emperor with dislike: when Elagabalus, jealous of this popularity, removed the title of Caesar from his nephew, the enraged Praetorian Guard swore to protect him. Elagabalus and his mother were murdered in a Praetorian Guard camp mutiny. Severus Alexander (222–235) Main article: Severus Alexander Bust of Severus Alexander, the last emperor of the Severan dynasty; Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse Severus Alexander was adopted as son and Caesar by his slightly older and very unpopular cousin, the emperor Elagabalus at the urging of the influential and powerful Julia Maesa — who was grandmother of both cousins and who had arranged for the emperor's acclamation by the Third Legion. On March 6, 222, when Alexander was just fourteen, a rumour went around the city troops that Alexander had been killed, triggering a revolt of the guards that had sworn his safety from Elegabalus and his accession as emperor. The eighteen-year-old Emperor Elagabalus and his mother were both taken from the palace, dragged through the streets, murdered and thrown in the river Tiber by the Praetorian Guard, who then proclaimed Severus Alexander as Augustus. Ruling from the age of fourteen under the influence of his able mother, Julia Avita Mamaea, Alexander restored, to some extent, the moderation that characterised the rule of Septimius Severus. The rising strength of the Sasanian Empire (226–651) heralded perhaps the greatest external challenge that Rome faced in the 3rd century. His prosecution of the war against a German invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by the troops he was leading, whose regard the twenty-seven-year-old had lost during the campaign. 235–284: Crisis of the Third Century Main article: Crisis of the Third Century Further information: Year of the Six Emperors The situation of the Roman Empire became dire in AD 235, when the emperor Severus Alexander was murdered by his own troops. Many Roman legions had been defeated during a campaign against Germanic peoples raiding across the borders, while the emperor was focused primarily on the dangers from the Sassanid Persian Empire. Leading his troops personally, Alexander resorted to diplomacy and the paying of tribute in an attempt to pacify the Germanic chieftains quickly. According to Herodian this cost him the respect of his troops, who may have felt they should be punishing the tribes who were intruding on Rome's territory.[73] In the years following the emperor's death, generals of the Roman army fought each other for control of the Empire and neglected their duties in preventing invasions. Provincials became victims of frequent raids by foreign tribes, such as the Carpians, Goths, Vandals, and Alamanni, along the Rhine and Danube Rivers in the western part of the empire, as well as attacks from Sassanids in the eastern part of the Empire. Additionally, in 251, the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox) broke out, causing large-scale mortality which may have seriously affected the ability of the Empire to defend itself. An antoninianus coin depicting Zenobia, showing her diadem and draped bust on a crescent with the reverse showing a standing figure of Iuno Regina By 258, the Roman Empire broke up into three competing states. The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire and, two years later in 260, the eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Aegyptus became independent as the Palmyrene Empire, leaving the remaining Italian-centred Roman Empire-proper in the middle. An invasion by a vast host of Goths was beaten back at the Battle of Naissus in 269. This victory was significant as the turning point of the crisis, when a series of tough, energetic soldier-emperors took power. Victories by the emperor Claudius Gothicus over the next two years drove back the Alamanni and recovered Hispania from the Gallic Empire. When Claudius died in 270 of the plague, Aurelian, who had commanded the cavalry at Naissus, succeeded him as the emperor and continued the restoration of the Empire. Aurelian reigned (270–275) through the worst of the crisis, defeating the Vandals, the Visigoths, the Palmyrenes, the Persians, and then the remainder of the Gallic Empire. By late 274, the Roman Empire was reunited into a single entity, and the frontier troops were back in place. More than a century would pass before Rome again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of formerly thriving cities, especially in the western empire, had been ruined, their populations dispersed and, with the breakdown of the economic system, could not be rebuilt. Major cities and towns, even Rome itself, had not needed fortifications for many centuries; many then surrounded themselves with thick walls. Finally, although Aurelian had played a significant role in restoring the Empire's borders from external threat, more fundamental problems remained. In particular, the right of succession had never been clearly defined in the Roman Empire, leading to continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, Senate and other parties put forward their favoured candidate for emperor. Another issue was the sheer size of the Empire, which made it difficult for a single autocratic ruler to effectively manage multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems would be radically addressed by Diocletian, allowing the Empire to continue to survive in the West for over a century and in the East for over a millennium. Late Roman Empire Main articles: Later Roman Empire and History of the Later Roman Empire Further information: Dominate, Late Antiquity, Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and Historiography of the fall of the western Roman Empire As a matter of historical convention, the late Roman Empire emerged from the Principate (the early Roman Empire), with the accession of Diocletian in 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284.[74][11] The end of the late Empire is usually marked in the west with the collapse of the western empire in AD 476, while in the east its end is disputed, as either occurring at the close of the reign of Justinian I (AD 565)[75] or of Heraclius (AD 641).[76] The subsequent period of centuries of the Roman Empire's history is conventionally labelled the "Byzantine Empire", with the reign of Heraclius beginning the Middle Byzantine period, which lasted until the Fourth Crusade. 284–301: Diocletian and the Tetrarchy Main articles: Diocletian and Tetrarchy The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St Mark's, Venice The transition to divided western and eastern halves of the empire was gradual. In July 285, Diocletian defeated rival emperor Carinus and briefly became sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Diocletian's reign stabilised the empire and marked the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. Diocletian appointed a co-emperor in 286 and delegated further with two junior-emperors. Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of all threats to his power. He defeated the Sarmatians and Carpi during several campaigns between 285 and 299, the Alamanni in 288, and usurpers in Egypt between 297 and 298. Galerius, aided by Diocletian, campaigned successfully against Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy. In 299, he sacked their capital, Ctesiphon. Diocletian led the subsequent negotiations and achieved a lasting and favourable peace. Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganised the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative centres in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier, closer to the empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat, elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court ceremonies and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardised, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates. Diocletian saw that the vast Roman Empire was ungovernable by a single emperor in the face of internal pressures and military threats on two fronts. He therefore split the Empire in half along a northwest axis just east of Italy, and created two equal emperors to rule under the title of augustus. Diocletian himself was the augustus of the eastern half, and he made his long-time friend Maximian augustus of the western half. In doing so, he effectively created what would become the western empire and the eastern empire. Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four tetrarchs' zones of influence On 1 March 293, authority was further divided. Each augustus took a junior emperor called a caesar to aid him in administrative matters, and to provide a line of succession. Galerius became caesar for Diocletian and Constantius Chlorus caesar for Maximian. This constituted what is called the Tetrarchy by modern scholars, as each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. After the empire had been plagued by bloody disputes about the supreme authority, this finally formalised a peaceful succession of the emperor: in each half a caesar would rise up to replace the augustus and select a new caesar. On May 1, 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated in favour of their caesares. Galerius named the two new caesares: his nephew Maximinus Daia for himself, and Valerius Severus for Constantius. The arrangement worked well under Diocletian and Maximian and shortly thereafter. The internal tensions within the Roman government were less acute than they had been. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Edward Gibbon notes that this arrangement worked well because of the affinity the four rulers had for each other. Gibbon says that this arrangement has been compared to a "chorus of music". With the retirement of Diocletian and Maximian, this harmony disappeared. After an initial period of tolerance, Diocletian, who was a fervent pagan and was worried about the ever-increasing numbers of Christians in the Empire, persecuted them with zeal unknown since the time of Nero; this was to be one of the greatest persecutions the Christians endured in history. Not all of Diocletian's plans were successful: the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), his attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was counterproductive and quickly ignored. Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. The Diocletianic Persecution (303–11), the empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity, did not destroy the empire's Christian community; indeed, after 324 Christianity became the empire's preferred religion under its first Christian emperor, Constantine. On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius Chlorus, the tetrarchs are sacrificing to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. In spite of his failures, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilise the empire economically and militarily, enabling the empire to remain essentially intact for another hundred years despite being near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on 1 May 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position (John VI retired to a monastery in the 14th century). He lived out his retirement in his palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending to his vegetable gardens. His palace eventually became the core of the modern-day city of Split. The peaceful Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of Constantius Chlorus on July 25, 306. Constantius's troops in Eboracum immediately proclaimed his son Constantine the Great as augustus. In August 306, Galerius promoted Severus to the position of augustus. A revolt in Rome supported another claimant to the same title: Maxentius, son of Maximian, who was proclaimed augustus on October 28, 306. His election was supported by the Praetorian Guard and the Roman Senate. This left the Empire with five rulers: four augusti (Galerius, Constantine, Severus and Maxentius) and one caesar (Maximinus). The year 307 saw the return of Maximian to the rank of augustus alongside his son Maxentius, creating a total of six rulers of the Empire. Galerius and Severus campaigned against them in Italy. Severus was killed under command of Maxentius on September 16, 307. The two augusti of Italy also managed to ally themselves with Constantine by having Constantine marry Fausta, the daughter of Maximian and sister of Maxentius. At the end of 307, the Empire had four augusti (Maximian, Galerius, Constantine and Maxentius) and a sole caesar. In 311, Galerius's Edict of Serdica officially put an end to the persecution of Christians, though the persecution continued in the territory of Maximinius Daia until his death in 313. Constantine and his co-augustus Licinius legalised Christianity definitively in 313 in the so-called Edict of Milan. In 317, Constantine and Licinius elevated three of the grandchildren of Constantius to caesar: Constantine's eldest sons Crispus and Constantine II, and his nephew, Licinius's son Licinius II. Constantine defeated his brother-in-law in 324 and executed both him and his son. This unified the empire under his control as sole augustus, with only his young sons as co-emperors; he raised his son Constantius II to caesar in 324. 324–363: Constantinian dynasty Main article: Constantinian dynasty Constantine and his sons Main articles: Constantine the Great and Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties The empire under Constantine (337) Division of the Roman Empire among the caesares appointed by Constantine I: from west to east, the territories of Constantine II, Constans, Dalmatius and Constantius II Having executed his eldest son and caesar Crispus in 326, Constantine also elevated his son Constans to caesar in 333, as well as appointing his relatives Dalmatius and Hannibalianus to caesar and King of Kings respectively. Constantine would rule until his death on 22 May 337. On their father's death, an interregnum followed during which Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans eliminated most of the Constantinian dynasty in a struggle for power that ended with the elevation of the three brothers as co-augusti in September 337. The empire was parted again among his three surviving sons. Constantine II was killed in conflict with his youngest brother in 340. Constans was himself killed in conflict with the rebel augustus Magnentius on 18 January 350. Magnentius was at first opposed in the city of Rome by self-proclaimed augustus Nepotianus, a paternal first cousin of Constans. Nepotianus was killed alongside his mother Eutropia. His other first cousin Constantia convinced Vetranio to proclaim himself caesar in opposition to Magnentius. Vetranio served a brief term from 1 March to 25 December 350. He was then forced to abdicate by the legitimate augustus Constantius. The usurper Magnentius would continue to rule the western Roman Empire until 353 while in conflict with Constantius. His eventual defeat and suicide left Constantius as sole emperor until the nomination of his cousin Constantius Gallus as his caesar and co-emperor. Constantius's rule would, however, be opposed again in 360. After his execution of Constantius Gallus, the augustus Constantius had named his paternal half-cousin and brother-in-law Julian as his caesar in 355, sending him to rule from Trier. During the following five years, Julian had a series of victories against invading Germanic tribes, including the Alamanni. This allowed him to secure the Rhine frontier. His victorious Gallic troops thus ceased campaigning. Constantius sent orders for the troops to be transferred to the east as reinforcements for his own currently unsuccessful campaign against Shapur II of Persia. This order led the Gallic troops to an insurrection. They acclaimed, invested, and crowned their commanding officer Julian as augustus after the decisive Battle of Strasbourg, a distinction he had previously been offered but declined. Both augusti readied their troops for another Roman civil war, but the timely demise of Constantius on 3 November 361 and his deathbed recognition of Julian as co-augustus prevented the Roman civil war of 350–353 from reaching Constantinople. 361–363: Julian Main article: Julian (emperor) Map of Rome in 350 Julian would serve as the sole emperor for two years. He had been raised by the Gothic slave Mardonius, a great admirer of ancient Greek philosophy and literature. Julian had received his baptism as a Christian years before, but no longer considered himself one. His reign would see the ending of restrictions and violence against paganism introduced by his uncle and father-in-law Constantine I and his cousins and brothers-in-law Constantine II, Constans and Constantius II. He instead placed similar restrictions on Christianity, and some unofficial violence against Christians occurred. His edict of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan temples and the reinstitution of alienated temple properties, and, more problematically for the Christian Church, the recalling of previously exiled Christian bishops. Returning orthodox and Arian bishops resumed their conflicts, thus further weakening the Church as a whole. Julian himself was not a traditional pagan. His personal beliefs were largely influenced by Neoplatonism and Theurgy; he reputedly believed he was the reincarnation of Alexander the Great. He produced works of philosophy arguing his beliefs. His brief renaissance of paganism would, however, end with his death. Julian eventually resumed the war against Shapur II of Persia. He received a mortal wound in battle and died on June 26, 363. According to Gibbon in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, upon being mortally wounded by a dart, he was carried back to his camp. He gave a farewell speech, in which he refused to name a successor. He then proceeded to debate the philosophical nature of the soul with his generals. He then requested water and, shortly after drinking it, died. He was considered a hero by pagan sources of his time and a villain by Christian ones. Gibbon wrote quite favourably about Julian. Contemporary historians have treated him as a controversial figure. 364: Jovian Main article: Jovian (emperor) Julian died childless and with no designated successor. The officers of his army elected the rather obscure officer Jovian emperor. He is remembered for signing an unfavourable peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, ceding territories won from the Persians, dating back to Trajan. He restored the privileges of Christianity. He is considered a Christian himself, though little is known of his beliefs. Jovian himself died on 17 February 364. 364–392: Valentinianic dynasty Main article: Valentinianic Dynasty Valentinian and Valens Main articles: Valentinian I and Valens A golden solidus depicting Valentinian I (r. 364–375) and (righthand image) a marble statue of his son and later ruler Valentinian II (r. 375–392) The role of choosing a new augustus fell again to army officers. On 28 February 364, Pannonian officer Valentinian I was elected augustus in Nicaea, Bithynia. The army had been left leaderless twice in less than a year, and the officers demanded Valentinian choose a co-ruler. On 28 March, Valentinian chose his own younger brother Valens and the two new augusti parted the empire in the pattern established by Diocletian: Valentinian would administer the western provinces, while Valens took control over the eastern empire. The election of Valens was soon disputed. Procopius, a Cilician maternal cousin of Julian, had been considered a likely heir to his cousin but was never designated as such. He had been in hiding since the election of Jovian. In 365, while Valentinian was at Paris and then at Rheims to direct the operations of his generals against the Alamanni, Procopius managed to bribe two legions assigned to Constantinople and take control of Constantinople. He was acclaimed augustus on September 28 and soon extended his control to both Thrace and Bithynia. War between the rival emperors continued until Procopius was defeated. Valens had him executed on 27 May 366. On 4 August 367, the eight-year-old Gratian was proclaimed as a third augustus by his father Valentinian, who had fallen ill, a nominal co-ruler and means to secure succession. In April 375, Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against the Quadi, a Germanic tribe which had invaded his native region of Pannonia. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, during an audience with an embassy from the Quadi at Brigetio on the Danube, Valentinian suffered a burst blood vessel in his brain while angrily yelling at the people gathered,[77] resulting in his death on 17 November 375. Gratian was then a 16-year-old and arguably ready to act as emperor, but the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant half-brother emperor under the title Valentinian II. Valens and Gratian acquiesced in their choice. While the senior augustus administered the eastern empire, Gratian governed the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. The praetorian prefecture of Italy, Illyricum, and Africa were officially administrated by infant brother and Gratian's stepmother Justina. However the division was merely nominal, actual authority in the west still rested with Gratian, and with Valens as the senior emperor. Battle of Adrianople (378) Main article: Battle of Adrianople Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of Adrianople Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with Germanic tribes. The Thervingi, an East Germanic tribe, fled their former lands following an invasion by the Huns. Their leaders Alavivus and Fritigern led them to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Valens allowed them to settle as foederati on the southern bank of the Danube in 376. However, the newcomers faced problems from allegedly corrupted provincial commanders and a series of hardships. Their dissatisfaction led them to revolt against their Roman hosts. Conflicts continued for the following two years. Valens led a campaign against them in 378. Gratian provided his uncle with reinforcements from the western Roman army. However, this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other near Adrianople. Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical superiority of his own forces over the Goths. Some of his officers advised caution and to await the arrival of Gratian, others urged an immediate attack and eventually prevailed over Valens, who, eager to have all of the glory for himself, rushed into battle. On 9 August 378, the Battle of Adrianople resulted in the crushing defeat of the Romans and the death of Valens. Contemporary historian Ammianus Marcellinus estimated that two-thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle. The battle had far-reaching consequences. Veteran soldiers and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties. There were few available replacements at the time, leaving the Empire with the problem of finding suitable leadership. The Roman army also started to face recruiting problems. In the following century much of the Roman army would consist of Germanic mercenaries. Gratian and Valentinian II Main articles: Gratian and Valentinian II The death of Valens left Gratian and Valentinian II as the sole augusti. Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole empire. He sought a replacement augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire. His choice was Theodosius I, son of formerly distinguished magister equitum Count Theodosius. The elder Theodosius had been executed in early 375 for unclear reasons. The younger Theodosius was named Gratian and Valentinian's junior co-augustus on January 19, 379, at Sirmium. Gratian governed the western Roman Empire with energy and success for some years, but he gradually sank into indolence. He is considered to have become a figurehead while Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose of Milan jointly acted as the power behind the throne. Gratian lost favour with factions of the Roman Senate by prohibiting traditional paganism at Rome and relinquishing his title of Pontifex maximus. The senior augustus also became unpopular with his own Roman troops because of his close association with so-called barbarians. He reportedly recruited Alans to his personal service and adopted the guise of a Scythian warrior for public appearances. Meanwhile, Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius were joined by a fourth augustus. Theodosius elevated his oldest son Arcadius to augustus in January 383, in an obvious attempt to secure succession. The boy was still only five or six years old and held no actual authority. Nevertheless, he was recognised as a co-emperor by all three augusti. 383–388: rebellion of Magnus Maximus Main article: Magnus Maximus The increasing unpopularity of Gratian would cause the four augusti problems later that same year. Magnus Maximus, a general from Hispania, stationed in Roman Britain, was proclaimed augustus by his troops in 383 and, rebelling against Gratian, he invaded Gaul. Gratian fled from Lutetia (Paris) to Lugdunum (Lyon), where he was assassinated on 25 August 383, at the age of 25. Maximus was a firm believer of the Nicene Creed and introduced state persecution on charges of heresy, which brought him into conflict with Pope Siricius, who argued that the augustus had no authority over church matters. But he was an emperor with popular support, as is attested in Romano-British tradition, where he gained a place in the Mabinogion, compiled about a thousand years after his death. Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, at the time only twelve years old, as the senior augustus. During the first few years, the Alps would serve as the borders between the respective territories of the two rival western Roman emperors. Maximus controlled the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. He assumed the government at Augusta Treverorum (Trier), the prefecture's capital. Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition. By 384 negotiations were unfruitful and Maximus tried to press the matter by settling succession as only a legitimate emperor could do: proclaiming his own infant son Flavius Victor an augustus. The end of the year found the Empire having five augusti (Valentinian II, Theodosius I, Arcadius, Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor) with relations between them yet to be determined. Theodosius was left a widower in 385, following the sudden death of Aelia Flaccilla, his augusta and the mother of Arcadius and Honorius. In 386, Maximus and Victor finally received official recognition by Theodosius but not by Valentinian. In 387, Maximus apparently decided to rid himself of his Italian rival. He crossed the Alps into the valley of the Po and threatened Milan. Theodosius was remarried to the sister of Valentinian II, Galla, after their mother Justina fled with the young emperor to Theodosius's territory to escape Magnus Maximus's invasion of Italy. The marriage secured closer relations between the two augusti. Theodosius indeed campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against Maximus. Maximus himself was captured and executed in Aquileia on 28 July 388. The magister militum Arbogast was sent to Trier with orders to also kill Flavius Victor. Theodosius restored Valentinian to power and through his influence had him converted to orthodox catholic Christianity. Theodosius continued supporting Valentinian and protecting him from a variety of usurpations. 379–457: Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty Detail of one of the carved reliefs on the Obelisk of Theodosius in Istanbul (Constantinople), showing Roman emperor Theodosius I surrounded by members of his court and receiving tributary gifts from foreign emissaries, late 4th century AD The division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I, c. 395, superimposed on modern borders. Western empire Eastern empire Main articles: Valentinianic dynasty and Theodosian dynasty 392–394: rebellion of Eugenius Main article: Eugenius In 392 Valentinian II died mysteriously in Vienne. Arbogast, who may have killed him, arranged for the appointment of Eugenius as emperor. However, the eastern emperor Theodosius refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West, defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus. He thus reunited the entire Roman Empire under his rule, the last emperor who had practical power over the whole empire. On his death in February 395, the two halves of the Empire went to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius. 395–423: Arcadius and Honorius Main articles: Arcadius and Honorius (emperor) Arcadius became ruler in the East, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler in the West, with his capital in Milan and later Ravenna. The Roman state would continue to have two different emperors with different seats of power throughout the 5th century, though the eastern Romans considered themselves to be the only ones who were fully Roman. Latin was used in official writings as much as, if not more than, Greek and the two halves were nominally, culturally and historically, if not politically, the same state. Arcadius died in 408, having already elevated his infant son Theodosius II to augustus in 402. Theodosius II reigned for more than forty years. Theodosius had two sons and a daughter, Pulcheria, from his first wife, Aelia Flacilla. His daughter and wife had died in 385. By his second wife, Galla, the daughter of Valentinian the Great, he had a daughter, Galla Placidia; his son Gratian did not survive infancy. Galla Placidia, having grown up at Constantinople, married first Athaulf, king of the Visigoths, and then the future Constantius III. Both her husbands died not long after the marriages, and Constantius III, who succeeded Honorius as augustus, reigned for less than a year. Galla Placidia and Constantius had two children: the future Valentinian III, who became augustus in the western empire, and Justa Grata Honoria. On the death of Honorius, the official Joannes seized power in Italy and Thedosius II appointed Valentinian III his caesar and dispatched him to the western empire with an army, which deposed Joannes and whose commander elevated Valentinian to augustus on the first anniversary of his appointment as caesar. His mother the augusta Galla Placidia was regent during his youth. Valentinian III married Theodosius II's daughter Licinia Eudoxia and reigned for three decades until his murder by the rebel augustus Petronius Maximus and his caesar Palladius, who forced Valentinian's wife Licinia and daughter Placidia to marry them. On the death of Theodosius II, the military officer Marcian was acclaimed Valentinian III's co-augustus and married the late emperor's elder sister, the augusta Pulcheria. Marcian was the last of the Theodosians to rule in the east, and only connected to them by marriage to the augusta. When Pulcheria died in 453 and Marcian died in 457, ending the Theodosian line, the court at Constantinople selected the general Leo I as his successor as augustus, beginning the reign of the Leonid dynasty. 457–518: Leonid dynasty Main article: Leonid dynasty The Leonid dynasty established by Leo I was continued by his daughters by the augusta Verina: Ariadne and Leontia. Ariadne married Zeno and their son together, Leo II, was elevated to augustus on the death of his grandfather (or shortly beforehand) in 474. Leo II, still a child, also died that year, but not before crowning his own father Zeno his co-emperor. Zeno, who was then sole augustus, faced numerous rebellions because of his tenuous claim to the throne, including a usurpation by Basiliscus, Leo I's brother-in-law, that briefly ousted Zeno from Constantinople. Other claimants were descended from Marcia Euphemia, the daughter of the emperor Marcian from his first marriage, before becoming emperor. Marcia Euphemia married Anthemius, who became augustus in the west in 467, and had several sons: Anthemiolus was killed fighting the Goths in the west, but his brothers Romulus, Procopius Anthemius, and Marcianus, who married Leontia, sought to overthrow Zeno, as did the generals Illus and Leontius, though each failed to dislodge the emperor. A relative of Leo I's wife Verina whose name is lost was married to Julius, the future emperor, who took the name Nepos, 'nephew', from his wife's relationship with the imperial dynasty. When Zeno died in 491, his widow Ariadne remarried, wedding a silentiarius, Anastasius Dicorus, who was then acclaimed and crowned emperor. Anastasius built the Anastasian Wall as an outer defensive works for the fortification Walls of Constantinople. Decline of the Western Roman Empire Main articles: Western Roman Empire, Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and Migration Period The western and eastern halves of the empire under Majorian and Leo (460) The Roman Empire in 476 After 395, the emperors in the western empire were usually figureheads, while the actual rulers were military strongmen who took the title of magister militum, patrician or both—Stilicho from 395 to 408, Constantius from about 411 to 421, Aëtius from 433 to 454 and Ricimer from about 457 to 472. The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the Western Roman Empire. That year, Orestes, having stolen power from the emperor Julius Nepos the year before, refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy. The dissatisfied mercenaries, including the Heruli, revolted. The revolt was led by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. Odoacer and his men captured and executed Orestes; weeks later they captured Ravenna and deposed Orestes' usurper son, Romulus Augustus. This event has been traditionally considered the fall of the Roman Empire in the west. Odoacer quickly conquered the remaining provinces of Italy. Odoacer returned the western imperial regalia to the eastern emperor, Zeno. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognised by the empire, in which case he would in turn acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other deputation was from Julius Nepos, requesting support to regain the throne. Zeno granted Odoacer the title patrician. Zeno told Odoacer and the Roman Senate to take Nepos back, but Nepos never returned from Dalmatia, even though Odoacer issued coins in his name. Upon Nepos's death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East; J. B. Bury considers this the real end of the Western Roman Empire. Odoacer attacked Dalmatia, and the ensuing war ended with Theodoric the Great, King of the Ostrogoths, conquering Italy under Zeno's authority and forming the Ostrogothic Kingdom, with its capital at Ravenna. 518–602: Justinian dynasty Main article: Justinian dynasty When Anastasius himself died, the court at Constantinople ignored potential claimants from the Valentinianic–Theodosian dynasty and elevated instead a senior officer of the imperial guard, Justin I, as augustus. Map gallery Empire Orient See also History of Rome Timeline of Roman history Legacy of the Roman Empire Succession of the Roman Empire History of the Byzantine Empire Notes Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included Res publica Romana or Imperium Romanorum (also in Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων – Basileíā tôn Rhōmaíōn – ["Dominion (Literally 'kingdom') of the Romans"]) and Romania. Res publica means Roman "commonwealth" and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. Imperium Romanum (or Romanorum) refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. Populus Romanus ("the Roman people") was/is often used to indicate the Roman state in matters involving other nations. The term Romania, initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a collective name for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the Byzantine Empire (see R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3). References Works cited Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Boston: Ginn. OCLC 1069567291. Cassius Dio (1925). Roman History. Loeb classical library, 176. Vol. VIII: Books 61–70. Translated by Cary, Earnest; Foster, Herbert B. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/DLCL.diocassius-romanhistory.1914. ISBN 978-0674991958. OCLC 902696997. Cassius Dio (1927). Roman History. Loeb classical library, 177. Vol. IX: Books 71–80. Translated by Cary, Earnest; Foster, Herbert B. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/DLCL.diocassius-romanhistory.1914. ISBN 978-0674991965. OCLC 899735677. Magie, David (1921). Historia Augusta, Volume I: Hadrian. Aelius. Antoninus Pius. Marcus Aurelius. L. Verus. Avidius Cassius. Commodus. Pertinax. Didius Julianus. Septimius Severus. Pescennius Niger. Clodius Albinus. Loeb classical library, 139. Vol. I. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674991545. OCLC 899735637. Magie, David (1924). Historia Augusta, Volume II: Caracalla. Geta. Opellius Macrinus. Diadumenianus. Elagabalus. Severus Alexander. The Two Maximini. The Three Gordians. Maximus and Balbinus. Loeb classical library, 140. Vol. II. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674991552. OCLC 899735638. References Bennett, J. Trajan: Optimus Princeps. 1997. Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 BC to AD 600". Social Science History. 3 (3/4). Duke University Press: 118. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 219–229. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2006.369. ISSN 1076-156X. John D. Durand, Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation, 1977, pp. 253–296. Christopher Kelly, The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 4ff. Nicolet, Claude (1991) [1988, in French]. Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire. University of Michigan Press. pp. 1, 15. T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 605 et passim. Clifford Ando, "From Republic to Empire," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, pp. 39–40. Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary. Brown, P., The World of Late Antiquity, London 1971, p. 22. "Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity: The Late Roman Empire". University of Oxford. 2012. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2018. "The late Roman period (which we are defining as, roughly, AD 250–450)..." Adrian Goldsworth, How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower (Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 405–415. Potter, David. The Roman Empire at Bay. 296–98. Chester G. Starr, A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670–678. Isaac Asimov. Asimov's Chronology of the World. Harper Collins, 1989. p. 110. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 12. Paul K. Davis, 100 Decisive Battles from Ancient Times to the Present: The World's Major Battles and How They Shaped History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 63. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 40. Birley, E.B. (1928). "A Note on the Title 'Gemina'". Journal of Roman Studies. 18: 56–60. doi:10.2307/296044. JSTOR 296044. S2CID 162265493. Abbott 1901, p. 272. Abbott 1901, p. 273. Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII.5.23. Abbott 1901, p. 293. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 269. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 38. Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). The Emperor Claudius Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 29. Dio-Loeb 1925, 29 (p. 191). Cassius Dio; Thayer, Bill. "Cassius Dio – Epitome of Book 63" (retyped, unproofread transcription of Dio-Loeb-1925). 29 (p. 191). Abbott 1901, p. 298. Abbott 1901, p. 296. "De Imperatoribus Romanis". Retrieved 2007-11-08. "Although the Dacians had been defeated, the emperor postponed the final siege for the conquering of Sarmizegetuza because his armies needed reorganisation. Trajan imposed on the Dacians very hard peace conditions: Decebalus had to renounce claim to some regions of his kingdom, including Banat, Tara Hategului, Oltenia, and Muntenia in the area south-west of Transylvania. He had also to surrender all the Roman deserters and all his war machines. At Rome, Trajan was received as a winner and he took the name of Dacicus, a title that appears on his coinage of this period. At the beginning of the year AD 103, there were minted coins with the inscription: IMP NERVA TRAIANVS AVG GER DACICVS." Statius Silvae 5.1; Dio Cassius 68.17.1.; Arrian Parthica frs 37/40. Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 377–462, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 460–461, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Paul Halsall (2000) [1998]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E." Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-17. de Crespigny, Rafe (2007), A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (AD 23–220), Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 600, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0. An, Jiayao. (2002), "When Glass Was Treasured in China," in Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road, 79–94, Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, ISBN 2503521789, p. 83. Hansen, Valerie (2012), The Silk Road: A New History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 97, ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3. Gary K. Young (2001), Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC – AD 305, London & New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-24219-3, p. 29. For further information on the Kingdom of Funan and discoveries at Oc Eo, see Milton Osborne (2006), The Mekong: Turbulent Past, Uncertain Future, Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin, revised edition, first published in 2000, ISBN 1-74114-893-6, pp. 24–25. Ferdinand von Richthofen, China, Berlin, 1877, Vol.I, pp. 504–510; cited in Richard Hennig, Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte, Band I, Altertum bis Ptolemäus, Leiden, Brill, 1944, pp. 387, 410–411; cited in Zürcher (2002), pp. 30–31. Bowman, pg. 1.[full citation needed] Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 4:5. Gibbon, Ch. 4. Zosimus, "Historia Nova", English translation at The Tertullian Project. 1:8. Dio, 74:8. Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 10:4. Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 11:1. Dio, 74:9. Historia Augusta 1921, Pertinax, 11:7. Dio, 74:10. Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" Archived 2008-11-01 at the Wayback Machine Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 13.2–5. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 4.2–7. Herodian, Roman History, ii.7.3. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 13.3. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 4.2, 4.4. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 14.3–4. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.1–2. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.3. Historia Augusta 1921, Septimius Severus, 5.5. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 5.4–8. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 16.3. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.2. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 6.9. Historia Augusta 1921, Septimius Severus, 5.7. Herodian, ii.12.3. Herodian, ii.11.6. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.3. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxiv, 17.5. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 8.8. Dio-Loeb 1927, lxxv, 1.1. Historia Augusta 1921, Didius Julianus, 8.10. " Herodian says "in their opinion Alexander showed no honourable intention to pursue the war and preferred a life of ease, when he should have marched out to punish the Germans for their previous insolence" (Herodian vi.7.10). Abbott, Frank Frost (1963). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. New York: Biblo and Tannen. p. 334. Lee, A.D., From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome (2013) p. xiii. Mitchell, S., A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (2014), Chapter 1. Gibbon, Edward (2012). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Edited in Seven Volumes with Introduction, Notes, Appendices, and Index. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ISBN 9781108050739. External links Media related to History of the Roman Empire at Wikimedia Commons vte Ancient Rome topics Outline Timeline History Foundation Kingdom overthrow Republic Empire History Pax Romana Principate Dominate Western Empire fall historiography of the fall Byzantine Empire decline fall Later Roman Empire History Constitution History Kingdom Republic Empire Late Empire Senate Legislative assemblies Curiate Centuriate Tribal Plebeian Executive magistrates SPQR Law Twelve Tables Mos maiorum Citizenship Auctoritas Imperium Status Litigation Government Curia Forum Cursus honorum Collegiality Emperor Legatus Dux Officium Praefectus Vicarius Vigintisexviri Lictor Magister militum Imperator Princeps senatus Pontifex maximus Augustus Caesar Tetrarch Optimates and populares Province Magistrates Ordinary Consul Censor Praetor Tribune Tribune of the plebs Military tribune Quaestor Aedile Promagistrate Governor Extraordinary Rex Interrex Dictator Magister equitum Decemviri Consular tribune Triumvir Military History Borders Establishment Structure Campaigns Political control Strategy Engineering Frontiers and fortifications castra Technology Army Legion Infantry tactics Personal equipment Siege engines Siege in Ancient Rome Navy Auxiliaries Decorations and punishments Hippika gymnasia Economy Agriculture Deforestation Commerce Finance Currency Republican currency Imperial currency Culture Architecture Art Bathing Calendar Clothing Cosmetics Cuisine Education Folklore Hairstyles Literature Music Mythology Religion Deities Romanization Romans Sexuality Spectacles Theatre Toys and games Wine Society Patricians Plebs Conflict of the Orders Secessio plebis Equites Gens Tribes Assembly Patronage Naming conventions Demography Women Marriage Adoption Slavery Bagaudae Technology Amphitheatres Aqueducts Bridges Circuses Civil engineering Concrete Domes Metallurgy Numerals Roads Sanitation Ships Temples Theatres Thermae Latin History Alphabet Versions Old Classical Vulgar Late Medieval Renaissance Neo-Latin Contemporary Ecclesiastical Romance languages Writers Latin Aelius Donatus Ammianus Marcellinus Appuleius Asconius Pedianus Augustine Aurelius Victor Ausonius Boëthius Caesar Catullus Cassiodorus Censorinus Cicero Claudian Columella Cornelius Nepos Ennius Eutropius Fabius Pictor Sextus Pompeius Festus Rufus Festus Florus Frontinus Fronto Fulgentius Gellius Horace Hydatius Hyginus Jerome Jordanes Julius Paulus Justin Juvenal Lactantius Livy Lucan Lucretius Macrobius Marcellus Empiricus Marcus Aurelius Manilius Martial Nicolaus Damascenus Nonius Marcellus Obsequens Orosius Ovid Petronius Phaedrus Plautus Pliny the Elder Pliny the Younger Pomponius Mela Priscian Propertius Quadrigarius Quintilian Quintus Curtius Rufus Sallust Seneca the Elder Seneca the Younger Servius Sidonius Apollinaris Silius Italicus Statius Suetonius Symmachus Tacitus Terence Tertullian Tibullus Valerius Antias Valerius Maximus Varro Velleius Paterculus Verrius Flaccus Vergil Vitruvius Greek Aelian Aëtius of Amida Appian Arrian Cassius Dio Diodorus Siculus Diogenes Laërtius Dionysius of Halicarnassus Dioscorides Eusebius of Caesaria Galen Herodian Josephus Julian Libanius Lucian Pausanias Philostratus Phlegon of Tralles Photius Plutarch Polyaenus Polybius Porphyrius Priscus Procopius Simplicius of Cilicia Sozomen Stephanus Byzantinus Strabo Themistius Theodoret Zonaras Zosimus Major cities Alexandria Antioch Aquileia Berytus Bononia Carthage Constantinopolis Eboracum Leptis Magna Londinium Lugdunum Lutetia Mediolanum Pompeii Ravenna Roma Smyrna Vindobona Volubilis Lists and other topics Cities and towns Climate Consuls Dictators Distinguished women Dynasties Emperors Empresses Fiction Film Generals Gentes Geographers Institutions Laws Legacy Legions Magistri equitum Nomina Pontifices maximi Praetors Quaestors Tribunes Roman–Iranian relations External wars and battles Civil wars and revolts Authority control databases: National Edit this at Wikidata United StatesIsrael Categories: History of the Roman EmpireRoman Empire This page was last edited on 2 November The 100 Best Movies Of All Time — And Where You Can Watch Them EMPIRE 100 Greatest Movies List by Team Empire | Updated on29th November 2024 at 5.44pm "What are the 100 best movies of all time?" It's a hell of a question to ask, and an even harder one to answer — even for us here at Empire, the world's biggest and best-loved movie magazine. After all, there are all kinds of reasons why individual films stand the test of time, connecting with us on levels both personal and universal. The very best exemplars of the form conjure indelible images, evoke overwhelming emotions, tell unforgettable stories, and bring us characters who — love 'em or loathe 'em — we truly believe in. Ever since the movies began, well over a century ago, they have been finding new and ever-edifying ways to, well, move us — to joy, to laughter, to fear, to tears, to the edges of our seats and to profound experiences that resonate through the years and across generations. From the misadventures of Peruvian bears to the epic quests of almighty fellowships; painterly, whisper-quiet period romances to pop culture shaping comic book blockbusters; and from awe-inspiring animated adventures to singular stories about the human experience hailing from all corners of the globe, to try and reach any kind of universal consensus on the best movies of all time is nigh-on impossible. With that being said then... How We Chose The Top 100 Best Movies Of All Time In creating Empire's list of the 100 best movies of all time, we enlisted the help of our esteemed readers, asking you to share your picks for the movies that have comforted, challenged, entertained and inspired you most — the films that, above all else, made and continue to make you feel something. Then, having taken a survey of your perennial faves, contentious picks, and dark horse contenders, we turned to our experienced team of critics and contributors to pool their expertise. Now, having weighed up the final shortlist and its entries' artistic merit and cultural impact, we have after much heated discussion settled on our final line-up. It will delight some, it may rankle others, but we wholeheartedly believe that our list makes for a pretty darn decent rundown of the finest films this medium we love has to offer. Contributors: Nick de Semlyen, James Dyer, Alex Godfrey, Chris Hewitt, Ben Travis, Sophie Butcher, Beth Webb, Jordan King, John Nugent. For more about Empire and the folks who helped put this list together, head this way. But without further ado, here is our selection for The 100 Best Movies Of All Time... 100) Reservoir Dogs (1992) Reservoir Dogs Director: Quentin Tarantino Starring: Harvey Keitel, Tim Roth, Steve Buscemi, Michael Madsen, Chris Penn Making his uber cool and supremely confident directorial debut, Quentin Tarantino hit audiences with a terrific twist on the heist-gone-wrong thriller. For the most part a single location chamber piece, Reservoir Dogs delights in ricocheting the zing and fizz of its dialogue around its gloriously —and indeed gore-iously) — intense setting, with the majority of the movie's action centring around one long and incredibly bloody death scene. Packing killer lines, killer needledrops, and killer, er, killers too, not only is this a rollicking ride in its own right, but it also set the blueprint for everything we've come to expect from a Tarantino joint. Oh, and by the way: Nice Guy Eddie was shot by Mr. White. Who fired twice. Case closed. Read Empire's review of Reservoir Dogs, streaming now on Netflix UK. 99) Groundhog Day (1993) Groundhog Day Director: Harold Ramis Starring: Bill Murray, Andie McDowell, Chris Elliott, Stephen Tobolowsky Bill Murray is at the height of his (eventually) lovable schmuck powers as narcissistic weatherman Phil Connors. Andie McDowell brings the brains and the heart as distant-but-ever-closer-coming producer Rita Hanson. And Harold Ramis, directing and co-writing with Danny Rubin, manages to spin gold from the well-worn thread of a man stuck in time. Whilst this time-loop dramedy might not have been the first film to drink from this particular trope's well, it is inarguably head and shoulders above the rest. Murray's customarily snarky delivery gets the easy laughs flowing early doors, but it's the way the movie finds deeper things to say about existence and morals as it goes on, all whilst never feeling overly preachy or worthy, that keeps us coming back to it again, and again, and again. Read Empire's review of Groundhog Day, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 98) Paddington 2 (2017) Paddington 2 Director: Paul King Starring: Ben Whishaw, Hugh Bonneville, Sally Hawkins, Hugh Grant, Brendan Gleeson When the first Paddington was on the way, early trailers didn't look entirely promising. Yet co-writer/director Paul King delivered a truly wonderful film bursting with joy, imagination, kindness, and just the odd hard stare from our beloved Peruvian bear. How was he going to follow that? By making one of the greatest sequels — nay, one of the best, most feel-good movies, period — of all time, naturally. Matching wits with Hugh Grant's moustache-twirlingly evil and deliciously outré washed-up actor Phoenix Buchanan, Paddington (Ben Whishaw) is on typically adorable form here as his search for a special present for his Great Aunt Lucy leads to all sorts of hilarious hijinks. Like all great sequels, this one takes everything that made the first so good and builds on it, dialing up the spectacle, the silliness, and the emotional stakes. The result is as sweet as marmalade. Read Empire's review of Paddington 2, streaming now on Netflix UK and BBC iPlayer. 97) Amélie (2001) Amelie Director: Jean-Pierre Jeunet Starring: Audrey Tautou, Mathieu Kassovitz, Rufus, Lorella Cravotta Jean-Pierre Jeunet's fourth feature – his second as a solo artist divorced from Marc Caro – saw the Delicatessen, The City of Lost Children and Alien: Resurrection filmmaker leave behind the overwhelming darkness of his earlier works and step out into the glorious sunshine of Amélie's whimsical fantasy Paris. Sure, a cynic could read the film as the story of Audrey Tautou's monomaniacal title character's relentless, somewhat stalkerish pursuit of the hapless Nino (Matthieu Kassovitz) around Montmartre's dream-like cityscape. But this one isn't for the cynics — it's a tribute to the daydreamers of this world. It's a sweet, nostalgic, sentimental, beautifully sunny, unforcedly quirky romantic comedy played out amidst a veritable visual fantasia that only Jeunet could have conceived. Amélie will always be on our list of things we like. Read Empire's review of Amelie, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 96) Brokeback Mountain (2005) Brokeback Mountain Director: Ang Lee Starring: Heath Ledger, Jake Gyllenhaal, Anne Hathaway, Michelle Williams Ang Lee's adaptation of Annie Proulx's short story (scribed by Larry McMurtry and Diana Ossana, and also featuring in our list of the 50 greatest LGBTQ+ movies) retains its source's sensitivity and grace whilst expanding its scope gorgeously, 10,000 words of prose turned into a sweeping cinematic romance for the ages before our very eyes. Played out against the beautiful mountain landscapes of Wyoming (or, in reality, the Canadian Rockies), the decades-spanning love story between shepherds Ennis Del Mar (Ledger) and Jack Twist (Gyllenhaal) — two men who unexpectedly find love on the titular mountainside, only to find it tested over the years as societal mores and heteronormative expectations work against them — is sensually observed and immaculately shot. Not only does it give you hope and break your heart in equal measure, but the multiple Oscar-winning movie's impact on queer cinema continues to be felt today. Even now, almost two decades later, we still don't know how to quit it (and honestly, we don't want to). Read Empire's review of Brokeback Mountain, streaming now on Prime Video UK. 95) Donnie Darko (2001) Donnie Darko Director: Richard Kelly Starring: Jake Gyllenhaal, Jena Malone, Maggie Gyllenhaal, Patrick Swayze, Mary McDonnell A high school drama with a time-travelling, tangential universe-threading, sinister rabbit-featuring twist, Richard Kelly's deliberately labyrinthine opus was always destined for cult classic status. A certifiable flop upon its theatrical release, Kelly's film was one of the early beneficiaries of physical media's move to DVD, with the movie gaining a fandom in film obsessives who could pause, play, and skip back and forth through it at will. Any attempt to synopsise the movie is a fool's errand, but there's more than a hint of It's A Wonderful Life in the way we see Donnie (Jake Gyllenhaal, in a star-making turn) experiencing how the world would be worse off if he survives the jet engine that mysteriously crashes through his bedroom. That the film, with all its heavy themes and brooding atmosphere, manages to eventually land on a note of overwhelming optimism is a testament to Kelly's mercurial moviemaking. A mad world (mad world) Donnie Darko's may be, but it's also one that continues to beguile and fascinate as new fans find themselves obsessed with uncovering its mysteries. Read Empire's review of Donnie Darko, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 94) Scott Pilgrim Vs. The World (2010) Scott Pilgrim Vs The World Director: Edgar Wright Starring: Michael Cera, Mary Elizabeth Winstead, Chris Evans, Brie Larson, Jason Schwartzman, Anna Kendrick, Aubrey Plaza With Scott Pilgrim Vs. The World, Edgar Wright leaned all the way into the things that make his directorial style so singular — excellent needle drops, a poppy visual palette, whip-pans and whip-smart wit — in order to do Bryan Lee O'Malley's beloved graphic novels justice. Michael Cera is on peak socially awkward Cera form here as the eponymous put-upon protagonist who's forced to face his new girlfriend's (Mary Elizabeth Winstead) seven evil exes in a series of increasingly wild face-offs. But it's the film's extraordinarily stacked ensemble (Chris Evans! Brie Larson! Anna Kendrick! Aubrey Plaza!), impressive mixed-media aesthetics, and endless pool of iconic quotes and playlist-essential tunes that cement it as one of Wright's most memorable. This is good garlic bread. Read Empire's review of Scott Pilgrim Vs. The World, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. 93) Portrait Of A Lady On Fire (2020) Portrait Of A Lady On Fire Director: Céline Sciamma Starring: Noémie Merlant, Adèle Haenel Celine Sciamma's magnetic, masterful lesbian romance may be a recent addition to this list (and our compilation of the 50 best LGBTQ+ movies), but became an instant landmark of queer cinema upon its release. Starring Noémie Merlant as an 18th century painter and Adèle Haenel as her elusive subject, Portrait Of A Lady On Fire is a tale of an epic love developed in the quietest, most delicate way, formed in stolen moments and glances. Sciamma's carefully constructed, smouldering screenplay and our leads' electric chemistry are matched only by Claire Mathon's transcendent cinematography, with each impeccably framed, Renaissance inspired 8K shot bringing new meaning to the expression "every frame a painting". Pure poetry. Read Empire's review of Portrait Of A Lady On Fire, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 92) Léon: The Professional (1994) Léon Director: Luc Besson Starring: Natalie Portman, Jean Reno, Gary Oldman In some ways, Luc Besson's first English-language movie is a spiritual spin-off: after all, isn't Jean Reno's eponymous hitman just Nikita's Victor The Cleaner renamed and fleshed out? In all seriousness though, Besson's film — which sees Reno's titular contract killer caught up in an unlikely coming-of-age tale after his next-door neighbours wind up on the wrong side of a DEA sting — is very much its own beast. Inarguably, its greatest strength however isn't Reno, or even Gary Oldman's unhinged baddie Stansfield, but a very young Natalie Portman, who delivers a luminous, career-creating performance as vengeful 12-year-old Mathilda. Despite some of the ickiness inherent in the relationship the film presents between a middle-aged man and a pre-teen girl, Portman's phenomenal performance helps augment an unlikely kinship that winds up being deeply affecting to watch. Read Empire's review of Léon: The Professional, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 91) Logan (2017) Director: James Mangold Starring: Hugh Jackman, Patrick Stewart, Dafne Keen, Stephen Merchant, Boyd Holbrook If you're going to wrap up your tenure as one of the most loved superhero icons in fiction, it's hard to think of a better way than how Hugh Jackman — under the direction of a never-better James Mangold — punched out on the time clock of playing Wolverine. Set in a dark near-future world where an aging Logan is caring for a mentally unstable Professor Xavier (Patrick Stewart) and getting mixed up yet again with some very dangerous people, Logan takes cues from Western greats such as Shane as Wolvie wrestles with his mortality and history of violence. A truly original superhero tale that is mournful without being morbid, Mangold's mutant masterwork is the perfect end to Logan's story (an ending, it has to be noted, given a rousing yet respectful encore in Deadpool & Wolverine). Read Empire's review of Logan, streaming now on Disney+. See where it came in our X-Men movie ranking here. 90) The Terminator (1984) The Terminator Director: James Cameron Starring: Arnold Schwarzenegger, Linda Hamilton, Michael Biehn After his directorial debut Piranha II: Flying Killers fell on its face, James Cameron could've been forgiven for calling it quits on a filmmaking career in Hollywood. Instead, he made The Terminator — and the rest, as they say, is history (which you can read about in detail in our ultimate interview on the movie with Cameron himself). Shot on a $6 million budget, Cameron's sophomore feature may crib a little from Michael Crichton's Westworld and Harlan Ellison's Outer Limits episode 'Soldier', but its action — which revolves around Arnold Schwarzenegger's instantly iconic shot-gun-toting, shades-rocking, time-travelling cyborg killer — is, outside of Cameron's own oeuvre since, without comparison. Made with all the relentless tension of a slasher (after all, what is Arnie's Terminator if not Michael Myers in leathers?) and the kinetic thrills of a balls-to-the-wall blockbuster, nothing has been the same since the T-800 told Linda Hamilton's Sarah Connor "Come with me if you want to live”. Read Empire's review of The Terminator, which is available to rent/buy on all major streaming platforms. 89) No Country For Old Men (2007) No Country For Old Men Directors: Ethan Coen, Joel Coen Starring: Javier Bardem, Tommy Lee Jones, Josh Brolin, Woody Harrelson, A perfect meeting of two creative forces' artistic sensibilities, the Coen brothers' adaptation of Cormac McCarthy's literary great sees the directorial duo imbue the existentialism of McCarthy's book with their signature brand of dark and violent filmmaking. The result is a tense, slow, and mysterious take on the chase movie format, lensed immaculately by legendary DP Roger Deakins. It's also a film that thoughtfully considers the question of how — or even if — good people can ever hope to deal with a world that's entirely gone to shit. And lest we forget, this was the movie that gave us Javier Bardem's cold-blooded sociopathic killer Anton Chigurh, a villain so terrifying that Hollywood has scarcely been able to resist casting Bardem as the go-to bad guy ever since. Read Empire's review of No Country For Old Men, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO, and Paramount+. 88) Titanic (1997) Titanic Director: James Cameron Starring: Leonardo DiCaprio, Kate Winslet, Billy Zane, Kathy Bates What to say about James Cameron's epic romantic tragedy Titanic? It's 'My Heart Will Go On'. It's "Paint me like one of your French girls." It's a steamy handprint on a cab's back window and a frosted breath on a floating door that's definitely big enough for two. It's sparks flying between Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, and Billy Zane being the ultimate shit-eating grinning baddie. It is, figuratively and literally, one of the biggest movies ever made. Sure, Cameron's movie based on the 1912 sinking of the world's biggest cruise liner may have suffered a difficult, overrunning shoot, and sure it may have been predicted to be a career-ending flop. But it turned out to be one of the most successful films of all time, both at the box office and at the Oscars. As Cameron himself proudly declared, it did indeed make him "King of the world!". Read Empire's review of Titanic, streaming now on Disney+, Netflix UK, and Paramount+. 87) The Exorcist (1973) The Exorcist Director: William Friedkin Starring: Linda Blair, Ellen Burstyn, Max von Sydow For many still the definitive exorcism film (sorry The Pope's Exorcist!), William Friedkin's 1973 masterwork is the stuff of horror legend. The movie, which sees Linda Blair's 12-year-old Regan possessed by demonic spirit Pazuzu, endures as a jump-out-of-your-skin shocker thanks to its still-gnarly pea-vomiting, spider-crawling, head-spinning, and crucifix-screwing sequences. But this is no mere jump-scare chiller, not by a long stretch. In fact, the real reason it continues to affect audience so deeply today is because of the way Friedkin, through the figures of Fathers Damien Karras (Jason Miller) and Lankester Merrin (Max von Sydow), so skilfully stages a soul-shaking crisis of faith, sustaining and building an atmosphere of such dread, such spiritual torment, that you can't help but feel you've unleashed something satanic simply by watching it. Read Empire's review of The Exorcist, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. See where it came in our list of the 50 Best Horror Movies here. 86) Black Panther (2018) Black Panther Director: Ryan Coogler Starring: Chadwick Boseman, Lupita Nyong’o, Michael B. Jordan, Angela Bassett, Letitia Wright, Martin Freeman, Winston Duke After his standout introduction in Captain America: Civil War, 2018's Black Panther allowed us to properly meet Chadwick Boseman's T'Challa, and see his Wakandan kingdom in all its glory. Impeccably directed by Creed's Ryan Coogler, it's an astonishing Afrofuturistic vision that oozes with a cool, colourful regality. The culture-rich canvas that the movie creates is beautifully filled with Oscar-winning costume design, a slew of stunning set pieces, and one of the most banger-filled soundtracks of the 21st Century. What's more, its mercurial narrative blend of pulsating espionage thriller and family saga ensures the movie has the substance to support its style. Soaring to billion dollar-plus box office takings, Black Panther's cultural impact cannot be understated — and after the tragic loss of Boseman in 2020, the film lives on as the defining role for a truly remarkable talent. Read Empire's review of Black Panther, streaming now on Disney+. See where it came in our MCU ranking here. 85) Shaun Of The Dead (2004) Shaun Of The Dead Director: Edgar Wright Starring: Simon Pegg, Nick Frost, Bill Nighy, Kate Ashfield, Lucy Davis, Dylan Moran Before its release, you might have been forgiven for thinking that Edgar Wright's proper feature directorial debut would be Spaced: The Movie. Which, honestly, probably would've been great actually. But what we got was so, so much more. A zom-rom-com made with real genre nous and a distinctly British sense of humour, Wright's movie strikes the perfect balance between laugh-out-loud comedy and seriously gruesome undead horror. From its perfectly synchronised 'Don't Stop Me Now' zombie beatdown, to Nick Frost and Simon Pegg's star-making, side-splitting performances, to Edgar Wright's go-for-broke gonzo approach to shooting and editing, this is British filmmaking at its finest. (Plus, the doppelganger scene hits every time.) Fuck-a-doodle-doo! Read Empire's review of Shaun Of The Dead, streaming now on Netflix UK. 84) Lost In Translation (2003) Lost In Translation Director: Sofia Coppola Starring: Bill Murray, Scarlett Johansson, Giovanni Ribisi With her sophomore feature, Sofia Coppola took a familiar enough rom-com set-up — two strangers cross paths in a foreign place — and turned it into a mesmerising mumblecore anti-romance. As listless college grad Charlotte and world weary actor Bob, Scarlett Johansson and Bill Murray share an ineffable chemistry, both offering beautifully understated performances as two people whose geographic and emotional sense of dislocation in Tokyo is simultaneously what brings them together and, ultimately, what keeps them apart, too. As well as that karaoke scene, its ending, in which Bill Murray's Bob whispers words we never hear into Charlotte's ear, is an all-timer. For an anti-romance, it sure does feel incredibly romantic all the same. Read Empire's review of Lost In Translation, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. 83) Thor: Ragnarok (2017) Thor: Ragnarok Director: Taika Waititi Starring: Chris Hemsworth, Tom Hiddleston, Tessa Thompson, Mark Ruffalo, Cate Blanchett, Jeff Goldblum A significant factor in the success of the MCU, especially across its first decade, was the way Kevin Feige cannily employed directors better known for making smaller, more independent movies, and then handed them the keys to the franchise's kingdom to let them do their own thing. Among the best to grasp such an opportunity is Kiwi auteur Taika Waititi, the man who helped Chris Hemsworth's Thor find the only weapon in his arsenal more mighty than Mjölnir — his funny bone! After the more Shakespearean severity of his first two solo movies, Thor: Ragnarok shakes up the God of Thunder's entire world by, well, pretty much destroying it. And do you know what? It has an absolute blast doing it. Full of action, bursting with colour, and boasting a uniformly excellent ensemble — Mark Ruffalo! Tessa Thompson! Jeff Goldblum! Cate Blanchett! — this is pretty much the Platonic ideal of a popcorn superhero blockbuster. And we're pretty sure The Godfather hasn't got a Korg, either. Anybody want a pamphlet? Read Empire's review of Thor: Ragnarok, streaming now on Disney+. See where it comes in our MCU ranking here. 82) The Usual Suspects (1995) The Usual Suspects Director: Bryan Singer Starring: Kevin Spacey, Gabriel Byrne, Benicio del Toro, Giancarlo Esposito, Pete Postlethwaite Five criminals are brought together to pull off a jewel snatching heist and suspicion and shoot-outs abound. It sounds like Reservoir Dogs doesn't it? In fact, it was even marketed as such. But a Tarantino picture, The Usual Suspects ain't. Taking the line-up team-up concept as a starting point for something altogether different in execution, Bryan Singer and writer Christopher McQuarrie's super-twisted, uber-cool crime thriller attains true greatness through its inventive use of a supernatural-horror style backdrop. In the shape of mythic crime lord Keyser Soze, the movie fashions a phantom menace terrifying enough to put the willies up even the most hardened of criminals. Turns out the greatest trick the Devil ever pulled was actually convincing us all this was going to be just another crime movie. Read Empire's review of The Usual Suspects, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 81) Psycho (1960) Psycho Director: Alfred Hitchcock Starring: Janet Leigh, Anthony Perkins Imagine what it would've been like to go and see Psycho in 1960. No late entry to the multiplex. Virtually no marketing beyond some shots of the Bates Motel and some old house overlooking it. And then, for the entire opening act, you think you've got it all figured out — it's a good old-fashioned noir! Janet Leigh's on the lam with a bunch of her boss' money and heading for a new life. And then she stops at that motel from the promos, meets the strange-but-nice-enough Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins), and hops in the shower. Then suddenly STAB! goes a knife. STAB! goes Bernard Hermann's piercing string score. And again, and again, and again. And from that moment on, you're rooted to your seat, in thrall to a madman (whether that's Hitch or Norman is your call), and certain to never be the same again. One of the best horror movies ever made, Hitchcock's monochromatic masterwork is pure cinema! (Also, don’t sleep on Psycho II, one of the most unexpected, underrated gems in sequel history!) Read Empire's review of Psycho, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. 80) L.A. Confidential (1997) LA Confidential Director: Curtis Hanson Starring: Guy Pearce, Russell Crowe, Kevin Spacey, Kim Basinger Famously dense, knottily plotted, and told in a staccato style that sees the author almost abandon anything recognisable as a sentence altogether, James Ellroy's L. A. Quartet of epic crime novels hardly screams prime fodder for the big-screen treatment. The miracle of Curtis Hanson and Brian Helgeland's L.A. Confidential, then, which adapts the third book in Ellroy's quartet, is that not only does it viscerally capture the author's noirish sense of Los Angeles as a dark-hearted labyrinth, a City of Angels whose angels are falling, but it also manages to trim all the fat off the original 500-ish page tome without losing any of its soul or meaning. That it also features exceptional performances across the board, especially from Russell Crowe as conscience-discovering bruiser Bud White and Guy Pearce as ramrod rookie Ed Exley, only solidifies its position further as one of the great modern works of noir cinema (and one of our best murder-mystery movies, too). Read Empire's review of L.A. Confidential, streaming now on Prime Video UK and Disney+. 79) E.T. The Extra Terrestrial (1982) E.T. The Extra Terrestrial Director: Steven Spielberg Starring: Henry Thomas, Drew Barrymore Over the years, the phrase "Amblinesque" has come to be a calling card for family-friendly adventures thrumming with heart, wonder, and just a smidge of darkness. It only takes a look at the success of the Duffer brothers' Stranger Things to see the Amblin approach will never go out of style. Never has that moviemaking method been more perfectly encapsulated however than in Steven Spielberg's actual Amblin joint E.T. The Extraterrestrial. Equal parts stonking children's adventure and poignant meditation on familial dysfunction and our capacity for healing, E.T. carefully beds its supernatural elements in an utterly relatable everykid world, tempering its cuter, more sentimental moments with a true sense of jeopardy. Boasting an extraordinary lead performance from a 10-year-old Henry Thomas, one of John Williams greatest scores, and an ending that still has us in floods over forty years later, E.T. remains the gold standard for family filmmaking. Read Empire's review of E.T. The Extraterrestrial, streaming now on Now TV/Sky GO. 78) In The Mood For Love (2000) In The Mood For Love Director: Wong Kar Wai Starring: Tony Leung, Maggie Cheung Set in 1960s Hong Kong, Wong Kar Wai’s In The Mood For Love sees neighbours Chow (Tony Leung) and Su (Maggie Cheung) falling for one another when they discover their spouses are cheating together. It’s a set-up that seems fit for a farce, but Wong uses it instead to create a sizzlingly sensual yet heartbreakingly restrained exploration of, as Chow puts it, how feelings “can creep up just like that”. With a distinctive, noir-inflected visual style (homaged to great effect in Everything Everywhere All At Once), and two of the most beautiful human beings to ever grace the screen in the form of Leung and Cheung at its centre, In The Mood For Love captures unspeakable desire quite unlike anything else. In any other filmmaker’s hands, the denouement – which sees Chow whisper his affections in Cambodia's Angkor Wat temple - could’ve been mawkish. In Wong Kar Wai’s, though, it’s an unparalleled expression of love. Read Empire's review of In The Mood For Love, which you can buy from all major physical media retailers. See where it ranked in our list of the 100 Greatest Movies of the 21st Century. 77) Star Wars: Return Of The Jedi (1983) Star Wars: Return Of The Jedi Director: Richard Marquand Starring: Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Harrison Ford, Billy Dee Williams, Anthony Daniels, James Earl Jones Richard Marquand’s Return of the Jedi, poured from the pens/tapped from the typewriters of Lawrence Kasdan and George Lucas, is the perfect giddy finale to a trilogy that changed cinema forever. Balancing soapy schmaltz with eye-popping action set-pieces (*that* triple-front finale is just magnificent!), popcorn Ewok antics with a Shakespearean redemption story, Jedi is a blockbuster finale that sees peril and poignance poised on a lightsaber-edge as Luke (Mark Hamill), Han (Harrison Ford), Leia (Carrie Fisher) and the gang take the fight back to the imperious Empire. Largely swerving the sense of dread that dominated Empire Strikes Back's conclusion, Jedi instead — with all its tactile effects, witty dialogue, kinetic action, kick-ass heroes (and villains), and awesome design work — feels like the ultimate embodiment of everything Star Wars is in the cultural consciousness. Read Empire's review of Return Of The Jedi, streaming now on Disney+. 76) Arrival (2016) ArrivalArrival ©TMDB Director: Denis Villeneuve Starring: Amy Adams, Jeremy Renner, Forest Whitaker, Michael Stuhlbarg Denis Villeneuve's empathic, perception-bending alien visitation drama is sci-fi at its very best. Offering a mercurial blend of blockbuster scale, spectacular special effects and grounded, intensely cerebral human drama, the Quebecois filmmaker's first venture into speculative fiction — bolstered by an emotional, career standout turn from Amy Adams as linguistics professor Dr Louise Banks — takes Ted Chiang's short story and makes of it something vast and singular. With its message that open-minded communication enables us to realise the things we have in common with those who appear vastly different, Arrival endures as a soul-piercing call for understanding in increasingly troubled times. Read Empire's review of Arrival, streaming now on Netflix UK and Now TV/Sky GO. 75) A Quiet Place (2018) a-quiet-place Director: John Krasinski Starring: John Krasinski, Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds, Noah Jupe Take a simple concept (don't make a sound, or aliens will get you), a stellar cast (Emily Blunt, Millicent Simmonds, Noah Jupe) and a director with a laser-focused vision (John Krasinski) and what do you get? As it turns out, one of the most innovative, refreshing, and unbearably tense horror movies of the 21st century. From the second it starts, the imposed silence of A Quiet Place makes it a revelatory cinematic experience. As the Abbott family pad gently around their home, the store, the woods, you feel in your bones that one wrong step equals disaster. The (loudly) ticking time bomb of imminent childbirth sets the scene for a stellar scary finale, but it's the deeply endearing family dynamic at play and Bryan Woods and Scott Beck's subtle screenplay that really sets this apart. Read Empire’s review of A Quiet Place, streaming now on Prime Video and Paramount+. See where it ranked in our list of the best horror movies ever, and of the 21st century. 74) Trainspotting (1996) TrainspottingTrainspotting ©TMDB Director: Danny Boyle Starring: Ewan McGregor, Ewen Bremner, Jonny Lee Miller, Robert Carlyle, Kelly Macdonald For their follow up to the superb Shallow Grave, Danny Boyle (director), Andrew Macdonald (producer) and John Hodge (screenwriter) foolhardily elected to film the supposedly unfilmable: Irvine Welsh's scrappy, episodic, multi-perspective novel about Edinburgh low-lives. The result couldn't have been more triumphant: the cinematic incarnation of 'Cool Britannia' came with a kick-ass soundtrack, and despite some dark subject matter, a punch-the-air uplifting pay-off. Read Empire’s review of Trainspotting, which is available to buy/rent on all major streaming platforms. Read our complete behind-the-scenes history here. 73) Mulholland Drive (2001) Mulholland Drive Director: David Lynch Starring: Naomi Watts, Laura Harring, Justin Theroux David Lynch messes with Hollywood itself in a mystery tale that's as twisted as the road it's named after, while presenting

• Condition: In Excellent Condition
• Options: Commemorative
• Year of Issue: 2025
• Currency: Gladiator
• Features: Commemorative
• Grade: Ungraded
• Material: Metal
• Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
• Variety: Olympic
• Certification: Uncertified
• Country of Origin: United States
• Colour: Gold

• Gladiator Silver Coin Roman Russell Crowe Autograph Old Hollywood Actor Medal US

  £9.99 Buy It Now 28d 8h

• Donald Trump Gold Coin Manhattan New York City United States of America Man USA

  £0.10 2 Bids 11h 6m

• 3D Star Trek Silver Gold Enterprise Coin Wars Sci Fi Old Patrick Stewart Signed

  £5.99 0 Bids 5d 9h

• Donald Trump 2024 Gold Silver Coin Old USA President Assassination Attempt Shot

  £5.99 1 Bid 5d 10h

• Pioneer Space Explorer Silver Gold Coin Earths Location Naked People NASA Retro

  £5.99 0 Bids 5d 9h

• Back the Future Gold Coins Sci Fi Time Travel Movie McFly Car Fantasy 80s Retro

  £9.99 Buy It Now 20d 11h

• Pioneer Space Probe Gold Coin Plaque Astronomy Jupiter NASA Voyager Satellite

  £5.99 0 Bids 5d 9h

• Oasis Ticket Gold Bar Autograph Noel Gallagher Liam Pop Music Rock n Roll Brit

  £9.99 Buy It Now 17d 10h

• Lalisa Black Pink Lisa Thai Dancer Beautiful Sexy Pop Rock Music Signature Asian

  £5.99 0 Bids 5d 10h

• JFK Gold Silver Coins Autographed John F Kennedy 1917 1963 3D Americana Old USA

  £9.99 Buy It Now 17d 9h

• £9.99 Buy It Now 28d 8h